







































































































































































































































COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT} 





























I 



















•• , 


* 





♦ 






























The 


Practical Lumberman 

THIRD EDITION 
Merits and Uses of the 

Leading Commercial 
Woods 

of the Pacific Coast 


ALSO SHORT METHODS OF FIGURING 


LUMBER, OCTAGON SPARS, 
LOGS, SPECIFICATIONS AND 
LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY 
OF VESSELS 


BY 

BERNARD BRERETON 

P. O. Box 1158 
TACOMA, WASH. 


PRICE $1.50 









1 f'"’ 






COPYRIGHT - 1908-1911-1915 

BY 

BERNARD BRERETON 





APR 13 (915 



PRESS OF 


COMMERCIAL BINDERY & PRINTING CO. 

INCORPORATED 


756-8 Commerce St. Tacoma, "Wash. 

©CU398347 

Ha a/ 





PREFACE 


The gratifying reception accorded the first issue 
of this work, both in the United States and Foreign 
Countries, has encouraged the writer to present to 
the public another edition on similar, but broader 
lines. 

For several years all my leisure time has been 
devoted to obtaining reliable data from every con¬ 
ceivable source pertaining to the Leading Commer¬ 
cial Woods of the Pacific Northwest. A considerable 
amount of information has been taken from “Forest 
Trees of the Pacific Coast,” by George B. Sudworth, 
“Dendrologist,” and publications of the United States 
Forest Service Department. The Lumber Trade 
Journals have courteously furnished much material, 
and my interviews and correspondence with a number 
of expert lumbermen, coupled with my own experi¬ 
ence, have enabled me to supply a book full of valu¬ 
able information to those engaged in the Lumber and 
Shipping industries regardless of location or the 
position in which they are employed. 

While the treatment of some of the subjects is 
necessarily brief it is to the point as the most casual 
perusal will disclose and if this work is the means 
of enlightening buyers and sellers of lumber through¬ 
out the world on the value and use of Pacific Coast 
Forest Products, one great purpose of the writer 
will be well accomplished. 

BERNARD BRERETON, 

Author and Publisher. 


FOR INDEX 

SEE 

BACK OF BOOK 



DOUGLAS FIR 

Pseudotsuga Taxifolia 


Douglas Fir, widely known as Oregon Pine, reaches 
its best development for commercial purposes on 
the Pacific Coast, from the head of the Skeena 
River, in British Columbia, and southward through 
the States of Washington and Oregon to Central 
California. It is divided into two classes—the Coast 
and Mountain forms—respectively known as Yellow 
Fir and Red Fir. 


BARK 

Yellow Fir is distinguished in the forest by its 
dark brown bark, which, though scaly at first, breaks 
up into ridges with deep furrows as the tree ad¬ 
vances in age. It runs from 5 to 10 inches in thick¬ 
ness at the base of the trunk, although higher up it 
becomes much thinner. 

The bark on Red Fir trees is of a grayish brown 
color, but not as coarse or thick as that of the Yellow 
Fir. In mature trees the bark runs from 2 to 3 
inches in thickness. 


FOLIAGE 

The foliage on both forms is dark green, and occa¬ 
sionally the mountain form is of a bluish tinge with 
varying shades. 


8 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


The branches on both forms leave the stem at 
the same acute angle, though the interval between 
branches is greater with the Yellow Fir. The Red 
Fir branches are inclined to retain their original 
position, but those of the Yellow Fir are gradually 
curved by the weight of their foliage till they are 
almost horizontal. 


HEIGHT AND DIAMETER 

According to investigations made by the Forest. 
Service of the United States Government, Douglas 
Fir trees have attained a great age—700 rings hav¬ 
ing been counted on a single stump. The tallest 
tree on the coast for which there is a record was 
380 feet high, which is also the maximum height 
recorded for Redwood. Trees fifteen feet in diam¬ 
eter have been observed, and some of the largest 
Douglas Firs have scaled as much as 60,000 board 
feet. Whole forests are found in which the trees 
average 250 feet in height and 5 feet in diameter. 
Timbers and plank sawn from this class of tree will 
often be clear of knots and other defects for 100 
feet in length. 

By a fair average of statistics the size of a tree 
200 years old for the Coast form would be almost 
200 feet in height, with a diameter breast high of 
36 inches, and that of the Mountain form 80 feet in 
height, with a breast high diameter of 21 inches. 
Under favorable conditions the maximum height 
attained by the Mountain form rarely exceeds 150 
feet, with a diameter of 48 inches. 


DISTINGUISHING LOGS 

Experts principally rely on their knowledge of the 
difference in the bark to distinguish Yellow from 
Red Fir logs. When there is a doubt on the point, 
logs cut from old growth trees or butt logs of large 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


9 


diameter are usually classed as Yellow Fir, and 
those cut from the top of the tree, of small diameter, 
or new growth—Red Fir. 


THE CORRECT NAME 

In the United States and British Columbia, Doug¬ 
las Fir is popularly known by a great variety of 
names, such as Washington Fir, Oregon Fir, Yellow 
Fir, Red Fir, Douglas Spruce, Red Spruce, Puget 
Sound Pine, Oregon Pine and British Columbia Pine. 
The employment of so large a number of names for 
one class of tree is very confusing, detrimental and 
often misleading, and for these reasons the Forest 
Service took a lumber census, which resulted in 
their adopting the name DOUGLAS FIR, as it was 
used more than all others combined. 

To guard against a misunderstanding, buyers or 
sellers in making out contracts or specifications for 
this lumber should stipulate “Douglas Fir,” and if 
they think it would benefit them could insert their 
favorite or local name in brackets. 

THE MANUFACTURED PRODUCT 
COLOR AND GRAIN 

Yellow Fir is close grained timber of a clear 
yellowish brown. Red Fir is generally of a coarser 
grain than Yellow Fir, yellowish brown in color 
with a reddish tinge. 

Coarse grain in some Fir trees is caused by a 
rapid diameter growth during the first 100 years. 
After this time the growth is slower and conse¬ 
quently the grain is finer. 


DISTINGUISHING YELLOW FROM RED FIR 

After sawing it is often a difficult proposition to 



10 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


tell the difference between the two forms; the usual 
method in this case is to class the wood nearest 
the heart as Red Fir and the outside or upper 
grade next to the sap, Yellow Fir. 


DISTINGUISHING CLEAR GRADES 

Clear slash grain lumber cut from old growth 
butt logs is readily distinguished from Red Fir by 
looking at the end of the piece and observing the 
direction of the curves taken by the annual rings, 
which will indicate whether the lumber was cut 
from a log of large or small diameter. 


DISTINGUISHING MERCHANTABLE GRADES 

In the merchantable grades the knots are smaller 
and closer together in Red than Yellow Fir and 
the difference in color and grain previously men¬ 
tioned denote to which form or class the lumber 
belongs. 


INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR FINISH 

The strength, durability and excellent appearance 
of Douglas Fir, combined with the beauty and va¬ 
riety of its grain and susceptibility to oil finish or 
stain of various tones, are some of the features 
which have made this wood a favorite with archi¬ 
tects and builders, and a pronounced success wher¬ 
ever it is used for interior or exterior finish, such 
as in turned columns, moulding, casing, ceiling, shelv¬ 
ing, door or wall panels, siding, car material or simi¬ 
lar class of work. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


11 


DOOR STOCK 

Manufacturers of Douglas Fir can add to their 
profits by paying more attention to the cutting of 
shop lumber (door stock) as the Domestic and 
Foreign market for Fir Doors has developed to such 
an extent that Door Stock will always be in demand 
at a remunerative price. 

Here is a good opportunity to advantageously dis¬ 
pose of butt logs that contain large knots at close 
intervals, a defect which renders them unfit for mer¬ 
chantable grades, but no detriment to shop lumber, 
as short clear lengths suitable for this material can 
be obtained between the knots. 


WARPAGE 

Under ordinary circumstances Douglas Fir does 
not warp, and after manufacture it retains its shape 
under change of climatic conditions that would warp 
or twist the majority of soft woods. Wide boards 
or boards projecting from a pile where they are ex¬ 
posed to the sun will naturally warp or twist unless 
precautions are taken to guard against it. 


SHRINKAGE 

Slash grain shrinks more than vertical grain on 
account of this lumber shrinking more in a tangen¬ 
tial or circumferential direction than it does in a 
radial direction. 

For practical purposes the following table will 
show to what extent this lumber shrinks during a 
thorough seasoning: 

1x4 Clear Vertical Grain shrinks 3/32" in thick 
ness, and 2/16" in width. 




12 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


1x6 Clear Vertical Grain shrinks 3/32" in thick¬ 
ness, and 3/16" in width. 

1x8 Clear Vertical Grain shrinks 3/32" in thick¬ 
ness, and 4/16" in width. 

1x10 Clear Vertical Grain shrinks 3/32" in thick¬ 
ness, and 5/16" in width. 

1x12 Clear Vertical Grain shrinks 3/32" in thick¬ 
ness, and 6/16" in width. 


1x4 Sappy Clear or Slash Grain shrinks 1/8" in 
thickness, and 3/16" in width. 

1x6 Sappy Clear or Slash Grain shrinks 1/8" in 
thickness, and 4/16" in width. 

1x8 Sappy Clear or Slash Grain shrinks 1/8" in 
thickness, and 5/16" in wdith. 

1x10 Sappy Clear or Slash Grain shrinks 1/8" in 
thickness, and 6/16" in width. 

1x12 Sappy Clear or Slash Grain shrinks 1/8" in 
thickness, and 7/16" in width. 

The average shrinkage in boards over 12 inches 
in width is one-half of an inch. 

Lumber 1% and 1 y 2 inches in thickness will 
shrink 1/32 more than inch, but there will be no 
difference in width. 

AIR DRIED SQUARES 

4x4 will shrink 4/32 of an inch each way. 

5x5 will shrink 5/32 of an inch each way. 

6x6 will shrink 6/32 of an inch each way. 

8x8 will shrink 7/32 of an inch each way. 

10x10 will shrink 8/32 of an inch each way. 

Squares larger than above will shrink % to % of 
an inch each way. 

SEASON CHECKS 

Lumber cut from Red Fir or new growth timber 
checks more readily than'Yellow Fir or old growth. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


13 


Light season checks will close when subject to .a 
moist atmosphere for a few days, or during voyage 
when stowed under deck of a vessel. When lumber 
checks from drying too rapidly, it is a defect which 
reduces the strength gained by seasoning—to its 
original strength. 

PROTECTING ENDS FROM SPLITTING OR 
CHECKING 

The driest parts of wood naturally shrink more 
than the other parts, hence the ends of logs or lum¬ 
ber generally check owing to their becoming dry 
more quickly than the interior. 

To prevent wide or valuable boards from season 
checks, or splitting when being handled, nail strips 
of wood across the ends. 

Before seasoning clear or valuable planks the ends 
should be whitewashed. This is preferable to red 
lead or paint, as it does not attract or retain the 
heat from the sun’s rays as is the case with colors. 

By protecting the ends the evaporation of moisture 
is retarded, the shrinkage takes place more uni¬ 
formly throughout the piece, and the tendency to 
crack is thereby reduced. 

To prevent porch columns or small posts from 
checking, a hole is cut through the center with a 
boring machine; this is done so that the air may get 
access to the interior, and make it keep pace in dry¬ 
ing with the outside, thus equalizing the shrinkage. 

U. S. GOVERNMENT WHITEWASH FORMULA 

The following is the formula for mixing white¬ 
wash, as used by the United States Government: 

To ten parts of best freshly slaked lime ,add one 
part of best hydraulic cement. Mix well with salt 
water and apply quite thin. 

The cement takes the place of glue, generally 



14 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


prescribed in whitewash formulas. The ingredients 
of the above formula will produce a perfectly 
white, non-washable surface wherever applied. 

WHY BOARDS CHECK, AND REMEDY 

The information on this subject will be a surprise 
to many lumbermen, and the reason why the ends 
of boards check, and how to avoid it, will now be 
explained. 

Boards 1x8 and wider piled during the summer will 
check at the end when they overlap cross pieces 4 
to 18 inches; the same result will happen in solid 
piles to the pieces with the same length of overlap. 
This statement can readily be proved by examining 
the ends of lumber that are piled in this manner. 

To illustrate the damage caused by this method 
of piling, presume that 1000 pieces of 1x12—16-ft. 
are piled in courses and the overlap extends 15 
inches past rear cross piece, 95 per cent, of the 
boards will be checked up to the cross piece, ren¬ 
dering it necessary to cut two feet off each board 
before shipment. This amounts to a loss of about 
12 per cent, without taking into account the cost of 
trimming the ends. 

The reason boards check at the end when piled 
in the manner described, is through the cross piece 
not allowing the board to shrink uniformly, and as it 
seasons a check starts and expands in width equal 
to shrinkage at the end. 

Boards very seldom check when they overlap cross 
piece by more than three feet. 

VERTICAL GRAIN FOUR SIDES 

The accompanying illustration represents a piece 
of lumber 6 inches square, vertical grain on four 
sides. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


15 



Vertical Grain Four Sides 


Some people are under the impression that this 
is impossible, but it can he accomplished by sawing 
the stick so that the grain at the end is at an angle 
of 45 degrees. 

Since the first edition of this hook was published 
there has been a certain amount of controversy over 
this subject, and to those who are still in doubt I 
can refer them to the following well-known lumber¬ 
men who will vouch for my statement: Wm. Mack, 
of 6 Aberdeen, Wash.; W. L. Macquarrie and Frank 
J„eath of the American Trading Co., Tacoma Wash.; 
L C Laursen and Bayard F. Burgess, Chief and 









































16 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Deputy Supervisors of the Pacific Lumber Inspection 
Bureau, also a number of officials of The S. E. Slade 
Lumber Co. and Federal Lumber Co., Aberdeen, 
Wash., at whose mills timbers were shipped to 
Australia 12 inches square, 32 to 51 feet in length, 
vertical grain four sides, and select in quality. Tim¬ 
bers of this description, size and length are excep¬ 
tionally rare, and the sight of a lifetime. They are 
seldom seen in any part of the world unless they 
have come from the Pacific Coast. 

VERTICAL GRAIN 

Extensively known as Edge Grain on the Pacific 
Coast, and Rift Sawn in the Eastern States. 













THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


17 


The wide face and ends appear like parallel lines. 
Lumber of this description is generally used for 
flooring, stepping, deck plank and door stiles. 

SLASH GRAIN 

The illustration shows the Flat or Slash Grain 
on the wide face. 



Slash Grain. 

This lumber is used for every variety of finish, 
and on account of the beauty of the grain is in great 
demand for moulded casing, door panels, etc. 
















18 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


As an interior finish for the better class of resi¬ 
dences, office buildings and stores, Douglas Fir is 
rapidly supplanting other woods that have hitherto 
been used for this purpose. 

BOXED HEART 

The drawing below shows what is meant by the 
term “Boxed Heart.” 



Large timbers are sawn in this manner, with the 
heart close to the center, so that the natural strength 















THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 19 


of the tree will be retained, and the danger of ex¬ 
posing heart shakes is thereby averted. 

DOUGLAS FIR DECK PLANK 

As a proof of the unsurpassed quality of Douglas 
Fir for ship’s decking, the following particulars will 
be of value to ship builders or those interested in 
the purchase of Clear and Select Vertical (Edge) 
Grain Deck Plank of any size or length from 20 to 
40 feet. 

The German bark “Omega,” bound for Hamburg, 
sailed from Portland, Oregon, on December 21st, 
1910, with 1,829,352 board feet of Clear and Select 
Douglas Fir, and of this amount 1,491,802 board feet 
was vertical grain deck plank. 

The entire cargo is to be used in the construction 
and decking of the “Europa,” the largest steamer in 
the world. This mammoth vessel will be 900 feet 
long, 95 feet beam, and have nine decks. She will 
have a capacity of 4000 passengers and will carry 
a crew of 1000 men. 

As the builders of this steamship had the world 
for a supply station, they paid the highest possible 
tribute to the merits of Douglas Fir Decking by 
chartering a vessel to carry this lumber from Port¬ 
land, Oregon, to Hamburg, Germany, an estimated 
distance of 15,000 miles. 

SEASONING 

Lloyd’s rules specify that Douglas Fir Decking 
requires six months’ natural seasoning before using. 

CAULKING SEAMS 

The recognized rule for the width of opening in 
the seams is one-eighth of an inch ,the beveled edges 
being 1 y 2 inches deep. 




20 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


POINTERS FOR BUYERS OF DECK PLANK 

Clear squares, free from heart centers, such as 
4x4, 5x5 or 6x6, can be resawn into vertical or slash 
grain if so desired, as two opposite sides will be 
vertical and the other two slash. 

Presume 2^x5 decking is required, all that is 
necessary is to split the 5x5 the correct way, and 
you will have two pieces of vertical grain deck plank. 
They would be about one-sixteenth of an inch scant, 
but a shipbuilder can regulate the surfacing so that 
there would be no material difference when finished. 
Clear squares are handy stock to carry; they can be 
resawn into vertical grain flooring strips, or stock 
for slash grain finish, according to requirements. 

Squares can be manufactured, bought and sold 
cheaper than vertical grain decking, therefore buyers 
or others interested will find the foregoing informa¬ 
tion worthy of consideration. 


DOORS 

Doors of the highest standard are manufactured 
from old growth Fir; the stiles and rails are usually 
vertical grain, and the panels slash grain. From an 
artistic standpoint the contrast in grain greatly adds 
to the general appearance of the door. 

In natural finish or with transparent stains, the 
beauty of grain and hardness of finished surface 
put Douglas Fir doors into the class of highest 
grade finish. 

For reception halls, libraries, dining rooms or any 
place where a durable or beautiful door is required 
Douglas Fir is vastly superior to any wood of equal 
cost on the American continent. 

The International Bureau of American Republics, 
at Washington, D. €., has a room for every Central 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 21 


and South American Re¬ 
public which is finished 
in hard woods furnished 
from such country. The 
United States room is fin¬ 
ished in paneled Fir (a 
semi-hardwood) and fitted 
with Fir doors, all show¬ 
ing the beautiful wavy 
and variegated grain of 
the wood, brought out to 
full perfection by the ca¬ 
thedral stain used. 

In the Western part of 
the United States and 
Canada, Fir doors and Fir 
finish are largely used in 
the finer modern office and 
hotel buildings, and these 
doors are rapidly becom¬ 
ing the standard door 
throughout the United 
States and Canada. 

To secure, the best re¬ 
sults doors should be 
manufactured from old 
growth butt logs of large 
diameter; it machines bet¬ 
ter than stock cut from 
small diameter logs, which weighs more and is 
darker in color. 

The author is indebted to J. A. Gabel, of Tacoma, 
an expert on Douglas Fir and Hardwood Doors, for 
courteously supplying the information upon which 
this article was based. 

VENEERED DOORS 

The growing scarcity of Oak, Walnut and other 
hardwoods used for veneered doors has created a 
demand for lumber that is a suitable substitute, and 
this long-felt want has been met by the erection 



A 5 Cross Panel Door 






22 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 



A three-ply panel taken without selection from 
the stock of Wheeler, Osgood Co., Tacoma, showing 
the typical grain of Douglas Fir when cut around 
the log nearly parallel to the rings of annual 
growth. 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


25 


of veneer factories where Douglas Fir is manu¬ 
factured for door and panel stock. 

In the opinion of many experts Douglas Fir has 
a more beautiful grain than Oak; it takes a fine 
finish when properly prepared, and certainly is a 
feast for the aesthetic eye. In point of beauty it 
undoubtedly surpasses Walnut, and has indeed few 
equals in any lumber. 

A veneered door is better than a solid one, even 
if the material is Oak. This is true also of furni¬ 
ture, generally speaking. In good veneering, two 
layers are put on, the grains running at right angles. 
Thus, when the sun and rain begin their activity 
the layers of veneer on the veneered doors act as 
preventive clamps against cracking and warping. 
Another gain is in lightness. A cedar door veneered 
with Fir is much lighter than a solid Fir door. 

For some years solid Oak doors were made, but 
their great weight impelled the manufacturers to 
resort to veneering. 

Veneered furniture, while it may not yet have 
as good a name as the solid, presents many advan¬ 
tages over the solid. Great virtue used to be laid 
upon the possession of “solid oak” or “solid walnut” 
or “solid mahogany,” but modern builders are mak¬ 
ing a better product by using veneers, and at a 
lower price. 

As the value of Fir impresses itself more and 
more upon door makers and furniture manufactur¬ 
ers, the demand for Fir veneer is bound to increase, 
and not many years will elapse before an increased 
number of large factories will be in operation on 
the Pacific Coast. It is one of the natural develop¬ 
ments of the lumber industry. 

AN IDEAL WOOD FOR SHIP DOORS 

For outside, saloon, or stateroom doors, either in 
passenger or cargo vessels, Douglas Fir has no equal. 
It will successfully stand the strain of rough weather, 




24 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


hard usage, change of climate or other conditions 
usually encountered during a voyage. 

This wood has great strength and durability, and 
can be obtained in any size, quality or grain suitable 
for every kind of door that is required for this class 
of work. 

RECORD SHIPMENT OF DREDGER SPUDS 

During April, 1911, the Mumby Lumber & Shingle 
Company, Bordeaux, Washington, shipped to Bos¬ 
ton, Mass., ten double carloads of dredger spuds 
and spars. The spuds ranged in size from 20x20 
50 ft. to 36x36 65 ft. long. 

When President Taft was in the Panama Canal 
zone his attention was called to several spud sticks 
in the big dredges and he asked where it was possi¬ 
ble to obtain such timbers. These sticks, each 36 
by 40 inches and more than 90 feet in length, the 
superintendent told him, were of Douglas Fir and 
shipped from Bellingham, Wash. 

LARGEST SAWN TIMBERS 

One of the largest Douglas Fir timbers ever sawed 
for commercial use on the Pacific Coast was manu¬ 
factured by the Tacoma Mill Company some years 
ago. It was 136 feet long and 24 inches square. 

At the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, a Douglas 
Fir stick was exhibited 154 feet in length and 18 
inches square. This timber was practically without 
a flaw and probably the longest timber ever run 
through a sawmill. 

RECORD WIDE CLEARS 

During May, 1911, Dolge & Buchanan, Tacoma, 
Wash., shipped to Liverpool, England, per S. S. 
“Antilochus,” a consignment of large clear Douglas 
Fir cants, the dimensions of the largest piece being 
eleven inches thick, forty-three inches wide and 
thirty feet long. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


25 


In April, 1910, the Bolcom Mills, Inc., of Ballard, 
Wash., shipped to England by the ship “Senator” the 
following extra wide clear cants of Douglas Fir: 

One piece 8x42", 20 ft. long. 

One piece 8x46", 22 ft. long. 

One piece 8x46", 24 ft. long. 

One piece 8x48", 16 feet long. 


DOUGLAS FIR GIANTS 

On the west slope of the Cascade Mountains a 
giant Red Fir was recently blown across the tracks 
of the Northern Pacific railroad. Traffic was blocked 
by the monster log, which measured eight feet in 
thickness. 

There was no saw within miles that was big 
enough to cut the timber, and as the railroad com¬ 
pany would not wait the five days required to saw 
a section from the huge log, dynamite was placed 
in deeply bored holes and the aged tree blown to 
splinters. It was easier to repair 10 rods of road¬ 
bed than to saw through eight feet of solid Red Fir. 

Not far from Snoqualmie Falls a giant tree was 
blown across a precipitous canyon a year ago. The 
trunk forms a footbridge ten feet wide. The log 
has been levelled and teams are often driven across 
it by venturesome drivers. 

The remarkable feat of erecting a 14-room house 
from the lumber of a single Yellow Fir was re¬ 
cently accomplished at Elma. There was nearly 
38,000 feet of lumber in the logs of the tree. Six 
logs, 28 feet in length, the largest seven feet in 
diameter at the smallest end were made from the 
fir. The measurement of the stump inside the bark 
was exactly nine feet. The trunk was straight and 
for 100 feet not a limb appeared. The total length 
of the tree was more than 300 feet. The lumber 




26 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


was worth nearly $1,000. The corporation owning 
the land growing this tree has hundreds of such firs, 
many of them too big to be handled by the equip¬ 
ment now possessed by Washington sawmills. 

WEIGHT OF FRESHLY SAWN DOUGLAS 

FIR 

1000 BOARD FEET EQUALS 3300 POUNDS 

To quickly ascertain the weight in pounds of 
“green” Douglas Fir: Add one cipher to the board 
feet, and divide by 3. 

EXAMPLE 

Find the weight in pounds of 672 board feet Doug¬ 
las Fir. 

PROCESS 

672 x 10 equals 6720, divided by 3 equals 2240 
pounds. 

3)6720 


2240 pounds 

The above is a very close estimate for all practical 
purposes, and has proved correct in thousands of 
instances. 

STRENGTH OF DOUGLAS FIR 

STRUCTURAL TIMBER 

(From tests made at the various testing laboratories 
of the U. S. Forest Service.) 

A digest of the results of bending tests on large 
sticks is given in the table, which indicates the 
weight, strength, and stiffness of beams, such as are 
found on the market and used by engineers. 

The modulus of rupture represents fairly well the 
strength of the timber; the modulus of elasticity 
represents its stiffness. 

It should be noted that the strength values of 
wood usually quoted in handbooks are based on 
small, clear, well seasoned sticks, the strength of 
which largely exceeds that of large structural timber. 




DOUGLAS FIR 

Summary of the average bending strength of structural timber. 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


27 


jo snjnpoj\[ 


aanjdnu 
jo snjnpoj^ 


£ § 
a> 3 

£<3 


i & 

o Q 


•8 


<3 « 

H 


juoo aad 
oanjsioj^ 


sjsox jo -ojsl 


s» 

> 


o o 

CD 

ID 

O CO 

cq 

CO 

CD CD 

UO 

ID 

tH tH 

i—1 

rH 


Lbs. per 

Sq, In. 

r 

6,975. 

7,500. 

6,140. 

i 

6,430. 

«© 

>C> 

s 

27.7 

27.7 

VQZ 

29.4 

CO 

iO 

s 

00 OS 

CO CO 

CO CO 

rtj 
oO 
CO 

38.6 


rH O 

os 

CO 


eq cq" 

o 

rH 


cq cq 

CO 

CO 


CO T* 

ID 

CO 


rH CD 

CO 

o 


cq iH 

1—1 

T—1 


m 

<D 

-d 

d 

t-i 

bfl 


a> 

?! 

"S 

-*-> rd 

a y 

a> 

■s § 

m S 


to 

a> 

T3 

as 

H 

M 


=3 § 

3° 


a 

'd 3 

d bo 
as a 

g'S ° 

a? £ 

Jh ^ 

o 


u 




d 




j>> 




d 

-m 

O 
>5 73 
f-c 

a 

<D 

.do 

t- 

d 

r& • 

a> 

u 

• 

Ph 

• 

O 

* 


'd -g 

as 

+-> ,a 

O y 
0) £ 

1 § 


d 

o 

bfi 

a> 

t-. 


o 

'd 

































28 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


EFFECT OF SEASONING 

In small sticks the strength begins to increase 
after the moisture has been reduced to about 26 
per cent. The laws expressing the relation of 
strength and moisture in the cases of small sticks 
do not, however, necessarily apply to large sticks. 
Timbers of commercial size develop checks and other 
defects while seasoning, and these partially offset 
the increase in strength due to drying. However, in 
the case of select sticks the actual strength was in 
some cases increased from 10 to 25 per cent by one 
year of careful seasoning. 

It appears that the strength of large sticks changes 
very little for the range of moisture usually met 
with in practice. Small pieces when kiln-dried in¬ 
crease in strength as much as 300 per cent, but 
large beams can not be dried out to the same ex¬ 
tent. 


Strength of Yellow and Red Fir 

Red Fir of a merchantable grade is slightly 
stronger than Yellow Fir of a like quality, and Yel¬ 
low Fir clear and select grades are slightly stronger 
than Red Fir, but the difference in both cases is so 
small that discrimination in favor of either Yellow 
or Red Fir would not be justified. 

Annual Rings—Yellow Fir 

The annual rings of old growth Yellow Fir, 
range from about 12 to the inch and upwards, in 
many instances they are so close together that it 
is impossible to count them with the naked eye; 
the contrast between the rings grown in spring and 
summer not being so great as that of the Red Fir 
form. 

Annual Rings—Red Fir 

The annual rings of Red Fir or heartwood of ma- 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


29 


ture trees average about 8 to the inch; the summer 
ring or darker colored wood is very hard and pro¬ 
nounced in new growth, thus giving greater strength 
to merchantable timber, but a detriment to high 
grade finish. 


RESULTS OF MECHANICAL TESTS 

The following results of mechanical tests were 
made upon planks and timbers that were graded by 
experienced Pacific Coast Lumber Inspectors and 
as usual in the tests of the Forest Service the grad¬ 
ing of the Inspector was found to correspond close 
ly to the average results of the mechanical tests. 

The sizes tested are those generally used in rail 
road work, for bridge, trestle and car construction. 

From an average of all grades and sizes it ap¬ 
pears that the modulus of rupture of partially air- 
dried beams is 6,975 pounds per square inch, the 
modulus of elasticity 1,600,000 pounds per square 
inch, and the oven-dry weight per cubic foot 27.7 
pounds, or 33.8 pounds per cubic foot as tested in 
a partially dry condition. The average rate of 
growth was about 15 rings per inch—that is to say, 
the tree added 1 inch to its radius, or 2 inches to 
its diameter, in fifteen years. 

In green beams an average of all grades and sizes 
shows a modulus of rupture of 6,140 pounds per 
square inch , a modulus of elasticity of 1,526,000 
pounds per square inch, and an oven-dry weight per 
cubic foot of 29.4, or 38.4 pounds per cubic foot as 
tested in a green condition. The rate of growth 
of the green beams was 10.8 rings per inch. 

For the comparative bending strength of large 
and small sticks. The ratio is 0.77 for fiber stress 
at elastic limit, 0.71 for modulus of rupture, and 0.99 
for modulus of elasticity, in the case of partially 



30 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


air-dried beams, and 0.71, 0.72 and 0.87, respectively, 
in the case of green beams. 

The crushing strength parallel to grain for Doug¬ 
las Fir is 4,406 pounds per square inch for partially 
air-dried timber. In the case of green timber the 
crushing strength is 3,590 pounds per square inch. 

The compressive strength at elastic limit, at right 
angles to the grain, is 651 pounds per square inch. 

The shearing strength parallel to grain of small 
blocks of partially air-dry Douglas Fir is 770 pounds 
per square inch. 

Out of 216 tests on partially air-dry Douglas Fir 
54 beams failed in longitudinal shear at a shearing 
stress of 313 pounds per square inch (average of 
three sets of partially air-dry material). 

The results of the tests show that there is no 
marked difference in strength between fir stringers 
of red and yellow color, provided the sticks have 
the same rate of growth and are equally free from 
defects. 

A series of tests on small, clear, straight-grained 
sticks indicates that a rate of growth resulting in 21 
rings per inch gives the greatest density and 
strength. 


POINTERS ON STRENGTH OF TIMBER 

The summary criticisms of the American Associa¬ 
tion of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and 
Buildings and other leading authorities seem to 
indicate the general correctness of the following 
conclusions: 

1. Of all structural materials used for bridges and 
trestles, timber is the most variable as to the proper¬ 
ties and strength of different pieces classed as be- 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


31 


longing to the same species; hence impossible to 
establish close and reliable limits of strength for 
each species. 

2. The various names applied to one and the 
same species in different parts of the country lead 
to great confusion in classifying or applying results 
of tests. 

3. Variations in strength are generally directly 
proportional to the density or weight of timber. 

4. As a rule, a reduction of moisture is accom¬ 
panied by an increase in strength; in other words, 
seasoned lumber is stronger than green lumber. 

5. Structures should be, in general, designed for 
the strength of green or moderately seasoned lum¬ 
ber of average quality and not for a high grade of 
well seasoned material. 

6. Age or use do not destroy the strength of tim¬ 
ber, unless decay or season checking takes place. 

7. Timber, unlike materials of a more homo 
geneous nature, as iron and steel, has no well defined 
limit of elasticity. As a rule, it can be strained very 
near to the breaking point without serious injury, 
which accounts for the continuous use of many tim¬ 
ber structures with the material strained far be¬ 
yond the usually accepted safe limits. On the other 
hand, sudden and frequently inexplicable failures of 
individual sticks at very low limits are liable to 
occur. 

8. Knots, even when sound and tight, are one 
of the most objectionable features of timber, both 
for beams and struts. The full size tests of every 
experimenter have demonstrated, not only that 
beams break at knots, but that invariably timber 
struts will fail at a knot or owing to the proximity 
of a knot, by reducing the effective area of the stick 



32 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


and causing curly and cross-grained fibers, thus ex¬ 
ploding the old practical view that sound and tight 
knots are not detrimental to timber in compression. 

9. Excepting in top logs of a tree or very small 
and young timber, the heart wood is, as a rule, not 
as strong as the material farther away from the 
heart. This becomes more generally apparent in 
practice, in large sticks with considerable heart 
wood cut from old trees in which the heart has be¬ 
gun to decay or been wind shaken. Beams cut from 
such material frequently season check along middle 
of beam and fail by longitudinal shearing. 

10. Top logs are not as strong as butt logs, pro¬ 
vided the latter have sound timber. 

11. The results of compression tests are more 
uniform and vary less for one species of timber 
than any other kind of test; hence, if only one kind 
of test can be made, it would seem that a compres¬ 
sive test will furnish the most reliable comparative 
results. 

12. Long timber columns generally fail by lateral 
deflection or “buckling” when the length exceeds 
the least cross sectional dimensions of the stick 
by 20, in other words, the column is longer than 20 
diameters. In practice the unit stress for all col¬ 
umns over 15 diameters should be reduced in accord¬ 
ance with the various rules and formulas established 
for long columns. 

13. Uneven end bearings and eccentric loading 
of columns produce more serious disturbances than 
usually assumed. 

14. The tests of full size long compound columns, 
composed of several sticks bolted and fastened to¬ 
gether at intervals, show essentially the same ulti¬ 
mate unit resistance for the compound column as 
each component stick would have, if considered as 
a column by itself. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


33 


15. More attention should be given in practice 
to the proper proportioning of bearing areas, in 
other words, the compressive bearing resistance of 
timber with and across grain, especially the latter, 
owing to the tendency of an excessive crushing 
stress across grain to indent the timber, thereby 
destroying the fiber and increasing the liability to 
speedy decay, especially when exposed to the 
weather and the continual working produced by 
moving loads. 


STRENGTH OF AIR DRIED TIMBERS 

What is the difference in strength between wood 
which is green and that which is air seasoned? 
This question has been asked innumerable times 
in the past without satisfactory reply. Now, the 
Forest Service has made a determination of this 
relation for Douglas Fir timbers and has made 
public its findings. 

The strength relation was determined by the 
use of thirty 5 inch by 8 inch by 32 foot timbers 
which were selected at an Oregon sawmill in 1907. 
Immediately after the timbers were sawed they 
were transported to a Forest Service timber testing 
laboratory, and each was cut into two sixteen-foot 
lengths. One of the sixteen-foot lengths of bach 
original timber was tested immediately, by support¬ 
ing it on a fifteen-foot span and loading it until it 
broke. 

The remaining sixteen-foot length of each piece 
was stored outside, under cover, for two years of 
seasoning. These timbers were tested during the 
present winter. 

The average breaking load for the thirty air-dried 
pieces was 8,030 pounds concentrated at the center 
of the fifteen-foot span. Like pieces, tested green, 
broke under a load of 6,390 pounds similarly applied. 




34 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


All grades of air-dried material tlien show twenty- 
six per cent greater strength than green material. 
The average deflection of the same air-dried timbers 
under a 5,000 pound load was 1.54 inches, while 
corresponding green timbers deflected 1.84 inches. 
Air-dried timbers are therefore twenty per cent 
stiffer than green timbers, all grades, each in equal 
amounts, being considered. 


KILN DRYING LUMBER 

GENERAL INFORMATION 

The rule amongst manufacturers of Douglas Fir 
is to kiln dry the stock in the rough, then dress it, 
which has been proved by experience to be the only 
method of obtaining satisfactory results. 

Lumber is kiln dried with the idea of removing 
from it all moisture of whatever kind contained in 
the heart wood or sap, the object being to reduce 
the weight for shipment, to prevent shrinkage and 
by extracting the liquid or volatile constituents of 
the sap, prevent discoloration or fermentation, 
which is the initial process of decay. 

To obtain the best results drying must commence 
at the heart of the wood and work outwardly, the 
heat in the kiln must be regulated so that the sur¬ 
face of the lumber is no more than sufficiently moist 
to keep the pores open till the moisture from within 
has been extracted and withdrawn from the board 
by evaporation. 

When moisture from the surface of the board is 
removed too rapidly the outside drys quicker than 
the inside, with the result that the outer surface 
checks and case hardens. 

Checks appearing on ends only are occasioned by 
faulty piling, the reason being explained in articles 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


35 


on “Protecting Ends from Splitting or Checking” 
and “Why Boards Check and Remedy.” 

Vertical Grain dries in 20 to 25 per cent less 
time than slash grain and for this reason it will be 
an advantage to sort the different grains and pile 
them on separate trucks. When there is not suffi¬ 
cient lumber of one kind to make a truck load, 
the better plan is to pile the vertical grain on 
lower part of the load, with the slash grain on top, 
as the heat is greater in the upper portion of kiln 
and consequently the lumber on the top of the load 
dries quicker than the lower part. 

When finishing off a load arrange the top course 
edge to edge, without an air space, then center an¬ 
other course on top of this so that the boards form 
a flat roof, by this simple method the usual time re¬ 
quired for drying is reduced fully 5 per cent. 

Lumber of large dimensions should be dried at a 
low temperature and the ends whitewashed as a 
preventative against checking (see whitewash 
formula). 

As lumber increases in size the time for drying 
should be proportionately lengthened. 

Foremen or whoever superintend the loading for 
the dry kilns should keep a record showing size, 
length, grade, kind of grain, and estimated amount 
contained on each load, also hour and date of enter¬ 
ing kiln. When load is taken out see that it is 
checked off. These particulars are required by the 
planing mill and yard foreman so that they can 
figure ahead on the stock required to keep the 
planers or other machines in operation, and fill 
orders to advantage. 

A self-recording thermometer should be placed 
within the kiln so that the temperature may be de¬ 
termined at any time. It also serves to check the 
work of the night fireman or attendant who often 



36 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


allows steam to go down to suit his own conveni¬ 
ence. 


STICKERS 

In order to gain space one-half inch stickers are 
frequently used, which are entirely too thin. They 
never should be less than three-fourths inch—one 
inch is better. When one-half inch stickers are 
used, the space gained is more than offset by slow 
and uneven drying. Care should he exercised in 
placing the stickers directly over each other, other¬ 
wise much lumber will be spoiled by not observing 
this rule 


SPACE FOR QUICK DRYING 

On wide loads the space between the edges of the 
boards should be at least two inches for quick dry¬ 
ing. There should also be two or three pockets from 
six to eight inches in width carried from the bot¬ 
tom of the car up past the center, which affords 
sufficient circulation to allow the middle of the load 
to dry equally with the outside. 

KILN DRYING PARTLY SEASONED LUMBER 

In warm weather or when lumber has been partly 
air dried, turn the hose on the stock before putting 
it in the kiln, the added moisture helps to insure 
more rapid and even drying and tends to prevent 
splitting. As air dried lumber is usually slightly 
case hardened on the outside, the application of heat 
in the kiln at once forces the moisture in the inside 
to seek the surface. If the pores of the wood are 
closed by seasoning, it prevents the free egress of 
the moisture, hence induces checking and uneven 
drying. 

The following extracts from an article by M. C. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


37 


Cantrell in “The Timberman,” Portland, Oregon, 
contains much valuable information on up-to-date 
methods of Kiln Drying: 


CAUSE OF POOR RESULTS 

There are very few kilns that are giving even 
average results, much less what they should, and 
would do, under proper conditions. This is often 
due to one or more of the following bad condi¬ 
tions: Open walls and roof; ventilators not prop¬ 
erly regulated; leaky pipes and valves; sagging 
pipes, preventing condensation from being dis¬ 
charged; badly fitting doors; temperature not uni¬ 
form; temperature too low; not enough humidity; 
steam trap not working freely, or, if. condensa¬ 
tion is removed through a receiver, the pump run¬ 
ning too slowly to keep the pipes drained. 


FACTS TO BE REMEMBERED 

It is well for those who have charge of the kilns 
to get two or three facts firmly fixed in their minds 
that are different from what is generally supposed. 
Remember that the same amount of heat is required 
to evaporate a pound of water at any and all tem¬ 
peratures, regardless of time; that moist air holds a 
much greater quantity of heat per cubic foot, ab¬ 
sorbs heat from the radiating pipes much faster, 
and has greater powers of evaporation than dry air; 
that visible moisture is not steam; that a pound 
of steam is a pound of water heated to 1150 degrees; 
that air cannot be held above 50 per cent saturation 
when propelled by a fan, and that lumber will dry 
better and come out brighter when no fresh air is 
admitted, or any of the air in the kiln allowed to 
escape. Stock, however, will not dry as quickly by 
the last named method as by adimtting the proper 
quantity of fresh air. 




38 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


CASE-HARDENING—CAUSE AND REMEDY 

There is much complaint about lumber coming 
from the kiln checked and case-hardened. The cause 
is very simple, and I do not believe the remedy is 
out of immediate reach. The cause is dry air. 
When the humidity is too low for the temperature, 
the stock will certainly check and case-harden, in 
which case increase the humidity. Don’t lower the 
temperature, as that is already too low in most 
instances for quick work. In short, much higher 
temperatures can be used without any bad effect 
than is generally used, provided the proper amount 
of saturation is carried. Only when the stock comes 
out stained or mildewed is there too much moisture. 
In that case reduce the humidity by admitting more 
fresh air, and increasing the outlets correspondingly 
for the escape of saturated air, or increase the tem¬ 
perature, or both. In many cases, the conditions 
would be improved by increasing the temperature 
altogether, and let the humidity stand. In the con¬ 
struction of new kilns, quite a saving in equip¬ 
ment may be effected by arranging to carry the 
high temperatures which a higher humidity admits. 


KILN CONSTRUCTION 

Another word about kiln construction and equip¬ 
ment. Though hard burnt brick make the best wall, 
a kiln properly constructed of lumber give A1 re¬ 
sults. The walls, proper, should always be venti¬ 
lated, or have air space, and the partition walls 
should be the same unless the entire battery is 
operated at the same time. The inside of the walls 
should be made of two layers of shiplap or tongued 
and grooved sheathing, with building paper or tarred 
felt between. The ceilings and floor should be well 
insulated. A good, cheap and easily prepared insu¬ 
lation for kilns that are not going to be permanent 
structures is sawdust mortar, composed of one part 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


39 


lime ana two parts clean sawdust. It is practically 
impervious to moisture, and does not absorb much 
heat. 


KILN DOORS 

The best door today is the canvas door, with a 
coat of asbestos paint. It neither leaks, warps or 
radiates or conducts heat, is light, and is fitted to 
the kiln at less cost than any other. Next to the 
canvas door is the one made of wood. 

RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 

When placing instruments in the kiln, they should 
be placed back of the first car, at least. Having 
them near the door, they will give false records, as 
the door will cause a variation of several degrees. 

If temperatures are to be kept uniform day and 
night, a recording steam gauge should be added, and 
is as necessary for keeping check on the night fire¬ 
man as a clock for keeping the watchman stirring 

INTELLIGENT HELP 

Don’t undervalue the importance of placing an 
intelligent man in charge. Cheap help and continual 
changing is an expensive practice. It may not re¬ 
quire all of one’s time to look after this part of the 
work, but let it be done by the same man at all 
times. 


INCREASING THE CAPACITY 

The following quotation from Mr. E. E. Perkins, 
of widely recognized authority on dry kilns, may be 
of value to many users of kilns: 

“As a quick, inexpensive way to increase the ca¬ 
pacity of any kiln, turn in your surplus exhaust steam 
direct, distributing it underneath the pipes and lum- 




40 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


ber. On one inch stock it will produce no harmful 
results. On oak, the amount of steam should be 
governed by the temperature of the kiln, as in ordi¬ 
nary drying. Do not throw away any exhaust steam 
about the plant anywhere, but turn it into the dry 
kiln. It may be distributed in a perforated pipe, or 
arranging tees, made up from ordinary pipe.” 

HOW TO ACT IN CASE OF FIRE 

In case of fire, act quickly, but don’t get excited. 
If possible, have someone notify the mill engineer 
or fireman to sound the customary fire alarm on the 
mill whistle, see that the drafts in the dry kilns are 
closed and keep the doors shut, then open the valves 
and turn on the live steam. This saturates the lum¬ 
ber with moisture and puts out many a fire, or arrests 
its progress until the fire fighting apparatus arrives. 


PICKETS ROUGH 

The standard size, 1x3—4 feet and 4 feet 6 inches 
long, are tied in bundles of 10 pieces each; they 
are in great demand for the Australian market, and 
are used for fences, and occasionally are sawn into 
inch lath: they are also extensively utilized as staves 
for mutton-tallow barrels. 

GRADE ACCORDING TO EXPORT “G” LIST 

Pickets 1x3 in.—4 ft.—4 ft. 6 in.—5 ft. Will allow 
variations in size of y s of an inch in thickness and 
Vs of an inch in width. Sap, pitch pockets, and two 
sound hard knots not over 1 inch in diameter allowed. 


MANUFACTURE 

Strict attention should be paid to their manufac¬ 
ture, and it is essential that they be uniform in 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


41 


thickness. They can be made from air or kiln dried 
stock and many mills rip 2x3 to 15-16 of an inch 
to make them. 

In most cases pickets are subject to rigid inspec¬ 
tion, and it is useless to make them from anything 
but the best material. 


DISCOLORATION 

Unless there are prospects of shipping pickets 
within a short time after they are manufactured, 
they should be piled on their edge in bundles, and 
crossed in alternate courses with an air space be¬ 
tween each bundle of about 4 inches. This 
prevents discoloration, and is the method employed 
by a number of mills who aim to ship their stock 
in a satisfactory condition. 

MEASUREMENT, CONTENTS AND WEIGHT 

1000 pcs. 1x3 —4 feet contain 1000 feet Board 
Measure, and average 3500 lbs. in weight. 

1000 pcs. 1x3 —4| feet contain 1125 feet Board 
Measure, and average 4000 lbs. in weight. 

The above weight is for green stock; when sea¬ 
soned lumber is used, due allowance must be made 
for difference in material. 


STAVES 

ACCORDING TO EXPORT “G” LIST 

No. 1 Staves 1x3 in. x 4 ft. Sawn full size clear. If 
seasoned will allow Vs of an inch scant in width. 

No. 2 Staves 1x3 in. x 4 ft. Will allow variations in 
size of Vs of an inch in thickness and Vs of an 
inch in width. Sap and two sound hard knots 
not over % of an inch in diameter allowed. 

Weight, same as pickets. 




42 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


LATH 

The standard for California and West Coast of 
South America is JxlJ in.—4 ft., tied in bundles of 
100 pieces. 

The Australian standard is as follows: 

Jxl in.—4i ft., tied in bundles of 90 pieces. 

JxlJ in.— 4\ ft., tied in bundles of 90 pieces. 

SxlJ in .—41 ft., tied in bundles of 90 pieces. 

Lath are put up in round or square bundles. 


MEASUREMENTS, CONTENTS AND WEIGHTS 

Jxli in.—4 ft. 

1000 Pcs. contain 166§ ft. B. M. 

6000 Pcs. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pcs. Kiln Dried, weigh 500 lbs. 

1000 Pcs. Green, weigh 700 lbs. 

£xl in .—41 ft. 

1000 Pcs. contain 125 ft. B. M. 

8000 Pcs. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pcs. Kiln Dried, weigh 375 lbs. 

1000 Pcs. Green, weigh 530 lbs. 

JxlJ in .—41 ft. 

1000 Pcs. contain 156J ft. B. M. 

6400 Pcs. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pcs. Kiln Dried, weigh 470 lbs. 

1000 Pcs. Green, weigh 660 lbs. 

Jxli in .—41 ft. 
and 

%xlh in.—4 ft. 

1000 Pcs. contain 187J ft. B. M. 

5333 Pcs. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pcs. Kiln Dried, weigh 560 lbs. 

1000 Pcs. Green, weigh 800 lbs. 

When lath are made % of an inch in thickness, 






THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


43 


the contents and weight can be computed by adding 
to the measurements given in the preceding table 
Vs of the corresponding amount. 

1000 Pcs. Jxlg-—4 ft. lath will cover 70 yards of 
surface. 


FREIGHT 

When figuring lath of any of the foregoing sizes 
and length for cargo freight, the prevailing custom is 
to reckon six pieces as being the equivalent of one 
foot board measure. 


GRADE 

Sap is not considered a defect, bark is not admis¬ 
sible, and it is very important that they are well 
manufactured. Inspectors should frequently measure 
size and length and check the number of pieces in 
a bundle. 


REMARKS 

Lath tied 100 in a bundle are much too heavy 
and this subject is worthy of special consideration. 
If they were tied 50 in a bundle they could be 
handled and Kiln Dried to better advantage, and the 
cost of lath yarn would not be increased as one 
strand would be sufficient in lieu of two in bundles 
of 100. 

A large percentage of bundles of 100 when tied 
with single or double strands of yarn are broken 
in handling and this would seldom happen to bun¬ 
dles of 50 pieces. 

Lath contain a large amount of sap, which is 
quickly blackened by the action of salt water, and 
when carried on a schooner’s deck they should be 




44 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


stowed above rail or hog lashings or protected in 
such a manner as to preclude the possibility of 
damage from this source. 

When it is necessary to carry lath on a vessel 
with an iron deck and they are used to fill spaces 
between winches, masts, hatches, etc., care should 
be taken that they are protected by dunnage to pre¬ 
vent discoloration from coming in contact with iron, 
or oil and grease about the winches. 

PILING LATH 

A good method of piling freshly sawn lath to pre¬ 
vent discoloration is as follows: Place two pieces of 
4x4 or their equivalent on the floor for a foundation 
at a distance of 3 feet apart; this acts as an air 
space or draft; place the lath on them with a three 
inch space between bundles; as soon as each course 
of a suitable length is completed, place two strips 
preferably 1x2 or 1x3 on top of the bundles and 
directly over the 4x4. These cross pieces allow the 
air to circulate between bundles, thus seasoning the 
lath and preventing fermentation. 

Care should be taken that there is a space between 
bundles of 3 inches as suggested, as the weight of 
the upper courses flattens out the bundles in the 
lower courses so much, that if a smaller space in¬ 
tervened at the start, they would probably be touch¬ 
ing each other on completion of the pile. 

ROUND VERSUS SQUARE BUNDLES 

Lath made up in solid square bundles mold and 
discolor much quicker than those packed in round 
bundles. After being handled a few times the square 
bundle loses its shape and at the finish it is neither 
square or round. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


45 


GRADE ACCORDING TO EXPORT “G” LIST 

Lath, three thicknesses to one inch. Will allow 
sap. 


RED CEDAR SHINGLES 

The standard length of shingles is 16 inches. The 
expression 6 to 2 and 5 to 2 means that the butt 
ends of 6 and 5 shingles, respectively, equals 2 inches 
in measurement. One bunch contains 25 double 
courses. One double course contains 10 pieces esti¬ 
mated at 4 inches wide. Four bundles are reckoned 
to the thousand. 


One thousand feet log scale will make ten thousand 
shingles. When shingles are shipped by vessel, 
freight is usually paid at the rate of 10,000 shingles 
being equal to 1,000 feet Board Measure. 


One thousand shingles can be stowed in a space 
equal to 10 cubic feet. 


To estimate the number of shingles required for 
a roof when laid 4 inches to the weather, multiply 
the number of square feet of roof surface by 9. 

It is easy to see why the foregoing rule is correct. 
Each shingle is 4 in. wide and 4 in. only of its length 
are left exposed, hence, it covers 16 sq. inches, or 1/9 
of a square foot—9 shingles will cover a square foot. 


Estimators usually allow 1,000 shingles to each 
100 square feet of roof surface. 


To find the number of shingles equal to 1 square 
foot: 

When laid 4 inches to weather, multiply by 9. 
When laid iV 2 inches to weather, multiply by 8. 










46 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


When laid 5 inches to weather, multiply by 7 1/5. 
When laid 6 inches to weather, multiply by 6. 


APPROXIMATE WEIGHT 

1000 shingles, kiln dried, weigh 160 pounds. 
1000 shingles, green, weigh 200 to 240 pounds. 


To find approximate amount of shingles that can be 
loaded in a box car, ascertain the capacity of car 
in cubic feet, add two ciphers to this amount and the 
result will be the number of shingles required. 


CORD MEASURE 

Firewood, small pulp wood, and material cut into 
short sticks for excelsior, etc., is usually measured 
by the cord. A cord is 128 cubic feet of stacked wood. 
The wood is usually cut into 4-foot lengths, in which 
case a cord is a stack 4 feet high and wide, and 8 
feet long. Sometimes, however, pulp wood is cut 
5 feet long, and a stack of it 4 feet high, 5 feet wide 
and 8 feet long is considered 1 cord. In this case 
the cord contains 160 cubic feet of stacked wood. 
Where firewood is cut in 5-foot lengths a cord is a 
stack 4 feet high and 6J feet long, and contains 130 
cubic feet of stacked wood. Where it is desirable 
to use shorter lengths for special purposes, the sticks 
are often cut lj|, 2, or 3 feet long. A stack of such 
wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, is considered 1 
cord, but the price is always made to conform to the 
shortness of the measure. 

A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord and equivalent 
to a stack of 4-foot wood 4 feet high and 1 foot wide. 
Farmers frequently speak of a foot of cord wood, 
meaning a cord foot. By the expression “surface 
foot” is meant the number of square feet measured 
on the side of a stack. 

In some localities, particularly in New England, 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


47 


cord wood is measured by means of calipers. Instead 
of stacking the wood and computing the cords in the 
ordinary way, the average diameter of each log is 
determined with calipers and the number of cords 
obtained by consulting a table which gives the 
amount of wood in logs of different diameters and 
lengths. 


HOW TO SAW TIMBERS 

When it is necessary to make two sound timbers 



Diagram Illustrating Correct Method of Making Two 
Timbers Out of a Log. 











48 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


out of a large log, splitting through the heart should 
always be avoided, and if the following system is 
adopted better timbers w r ill be produced, and the 
danger of exposing heart shakes will he greatly 
minimized. 

Presume it is necessary to make two 12x12 tim¬ 
bers out of a log 32 inches in diameter. Square up 
a 12x28i (the \ inch allows for two cuts J inch 
Kerf), then cut the first timber, and if free from 
heart shakes, turn cant over and saw off 4 inches, 
and you will then have the second timber on the 
carriage. If after the first cut, shakey heart or other 
defects are exposed, without turning cant make an¬ 
other cut of 4 inches, which leaves a 12x12 on the 
carriage, and a glance will show whether it is suitable 
or not for required order. 

Merchantable lumber up to and including 6 inches 
in thickness, intended for shipment to Great Britain 
and Australia should contain as few heart centers 
as possible. 



OCTAGON 

SPARS 











THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


49 


As tne custom is now becoming general to order 
Octagon Spars, both Sawn and Hewn, the informa¬ 
tion on this subject will be appreciated by those 
who make a specialty of this line. 

An Octagon can be made out of a Square timber 
by the following rule: 

From diagonal deduct one side of timber, and that 
will give one side of the Octagon. 

To find the length of the side of the triangle to 
be taken off the corner of the timber at right angles 
to the diagonal, deduct half the diagonal from one 
side of the timber. 

One side of a square timber divided by .707 gives 
the diagonal. 


Example: Find the length of one side of an Oc¬ 
tagon that can be made out of a timber 35 inches 
square. 

Diagonal of 35x35 —49.50 inches. 

One side of 35x35 —35.00 inches. 


One side of Octagon—14.50 inches. 

Example: What is the length of the side of a 
triangle to be taken off the corner of a timber 35 
inches square to make an Octagon. 

Process: 

2)49.50 Diagonal 


24.75 Half the Diagonal. 
35.00 Inches one side of timber. 
24.75 Inches half the diagonal. 


10.25 Inches length of one side of triangle. 







50 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 



To find one side of an Octagon inscribed in a circle, 
multiply diameter by .38265. 

To find area of an Octagon multiply square of side 
by 4.82843. 

When one side of a square is given, to find one 
side of an Octagon, that can be made out of it— 
multiply one side of square by .41421. 

When one side of an Octagon is given, to find the 
diameter of the circumscribed circle, multiply one 
side of the Octagon by 2.613. 








THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


51 


USEFUL TABLE FOR MAKING OCTAGONS OUT 
OF SQUARE TIMBERS. 


Square 


One Side 

One Side 

Timber. 

Diagonal, of Octagon. 

of Corner. 

First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Column. 

Column. 

Column. 

Column. 

6x6, 

. 848 

2.48 

1.76 

7x7. 

. 9.90 

2.90 

2.05 

8x8. 

. 11.31 

3.31 

2.35 

9x9. 

. 12.73 

3.73 

2.63 

10 x 10 . 

. 14.14 

4.14 

2.93 

11 x 11 . 

. 15.56 

4.56 

3.22 

12 x 12 . 

. 16.97 

4.97 

3.51 

13 x 13 . 

. 18.39 

5.39 

3.81 

14 x 14 . 

. 19.80 

5.80 

4.10 

15 x 15 . 

. 21.22 

6.22 

4.39 

16 x 16 . 

. 22.63 

6.63 

4.69 

17 x 17 . 

. 24.05 

7.05 

4.97 

18 x 18 . 

. 25.46 

7.46 

5.27 

19 x 19 . 

.26.87 

7.87 

5.56 

20 x 20 . 

. 28.29 

8.29 

5.85 

21 x 21 . 

. 29.70 

8.70 

6.15 

22 x 22 , 

. 31.12 

9.12 

6.44 

23 x 23 . 

. 32.53 

9.53 

6.73 

24 x 24 

. 33.95 

9.95 

702 

25 x 25 . 

. 35.36 

10.36 

7.32 

26 x 26 

. 36.78 

10.78 

7.61 

27 x 27 . 

. 38.19 

11..19 

7.90 

28 x 28 . 

. 39.60 

11.60 

8.20 

29 x 29 . 

. 41.02 

12.02 

8.49 

30 x 30 . 

. 42.43 

12.43 

8.78 

31 x 31 . 

. 43.85 

12.85 

9.07 

32 x 32 . 

. 45.26 

13.26 

9.37 

33 x 33 . 

. 46.68 

13.36 

9.66 

34 x 34 . 

. 48.09 

14.09 

9.95 

35 x 35 . 

. 49.50 

14.50 

10.25 

36 x 36 . 

.. 50.90 

14.92 

10.54 

































52 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Explanation of Table 

First Column shows the size of the timber to be 
made into an Octagon. 

Second Column shows the diagonal or the length 
of a line joining the opposite angles of the timber. 

Third Column shows the length of one side of the 
Octagon that can be made from the timber in First 
Column. 

Fourth Column shows the length of one side of 
the triangle to be cut off each corner of the timber 
at right angles to the diagonal to make the Octagon. 

The diagram represents a timber 35 inches square, 
and at the same time shows how to work out an 
Octagon on paper. 


H G- 



The distances are as follows: 

A to B, 49^ inches—Shows diagonal. 

A to C, and C to D, 35 inches—Length equal to 
one side of square. 

A to E, 24| inches—Shows half the diagonal. 






THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


53 


D to G, and H to I, 14| inches—Shows length equal 
to one side of the Octagon. 

H to G, and G to I, 10J inches—Shows length of one 
side of the triangle of the corner to be taken off tim¬ 
ber to make Octagon. 

In sawing Spars and large timbers the sawyer 
should endeavor to keep the heart as close to center 
of stick as possible. 


TERMS USED BY PACIFIC COAST 
LOGGERS 

Annual Ring —The layer of wood produced by the 
diameter growth of a tree in one year, as seen on a 
cross section. 

Battery —Two or more donkey engines for dragging 
logs, set at intervals on a long skid road. 

Bed a Tree, to —To level up a path in which a tree 
is to fall, so that it may not be shattered. 

Birl —To cause a floating log to rotate rapidly by 
treading upon it. 

Blaze —To mark, by cutting into trees the course 
of a boundary, road, trail, or the like. 

Bole —The trunk of a tree. 

Breast high —At or having a height of 4^ feet 
above the ground. 

Bridle —A device for controlling the speed of logs 
on a skid road. It consists of a short rope with two 
hooks at one end, which are driven into the first 
log of the turn; at the other end is a clamp which 
runs over the cable. 

Bridle man —One who follows a turn of logs down 
the skid road, and tends the bridle. 

Buck —To saw felled trees into logs. 

Bucker —A cross cutter. One who saws felled trees 
into logs. 




54 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Bull chain—A very heavy chain, to which brackets 
are attached, or a number of short chains, with hooks 
on one end and dogs on the other. It is used to 
haul logs from the pond up the slip and on to the 
log deck in the saw mill. 

Butt —The base of a tree or big end of a log. 

Butt cut —The first log above the stump. 

Butt off, to —To cut a piece from the end of a log 
on account of a defect. 

Cat face —A partly headed over scar on the stem 
of a tree. 

Choker —A noose of wire rope by which a log is 
dragged. 

Choker man —The member of a yarding crew who 
fastens the choker on the logs. 

Chopper —See faller. 

Chunk —To clear the ground with engine or horses, 
of obstructions which cannot be removed by hand. 

Conk—The decay in the wood of trees caused by a 
fungus. 

Conky —Affected by conk. 

Cradle —A framework of timbers in which ocean¬ 
going rafts of logs are built. 

Damp Rot —Commences on the outside and gradual¬ 
ly finds an entrance into the interior, through a 
check, bruise, or broken limb. 

Deadhead —A sunken or partly sunken log. 

Dinkey —A small logging locomotive. 

Dote —Term used by lumbermen to denote decay 
or rot in timber. 

Doty —Decayed. 

Dozy —See Doty. 

Dry rot —Decay in timber without apparent mois¬ 
ture, occurs in center and works outwards. 

Faller —One who fells trees, by using an axe or 
saw. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


55 


Falling wedge —A wedge used to throw a tree in 
the desired direction, by driving it into the saw kerf. 

Full scale —Measurement of logs in which no reduc¬ 
tion is made for defects. 

Greaser —One whose duty it is to keep a logging 
road in proper condition. 

Gun —To aim a tree in felling it. In large trees 
such as Redwood, a sighting device (gunning stick) 
is used. 

Hand skidder —One who accompanies a log as it 
is being dragged, and places short skids beneath it. 

Hardwood —As applied to trees and logs, broad- 
leafed, belonging to the dicotyledons. 

Head faller —The chief of a crew of fallers. 

Hook tender —The foreman of a yarding crew; 
specifically, one who directs the attaching of the 
cable to a turn of logs. 

Landing —A place to which logs are hauled or skid¬ 
ded preparatory to transportation by water or rail. 

Line horse —The horse which drags the cable from 
the yarding engine to the log to which the cable is 
attached. 

Nose —To round off the end of a log in order to 
make it drag or slip more easily. 

Pole —A tree from 4 to 12 inches diameter, breast- 
high. A small pole is 4 to 8 inches in diameter, 
breasthigh. A large pole is a tree 8 to 12 inches in 
diameter, breasthigh. 

Pocket boom— A boom in which logs are held 
after they are sorted. 

Rigging —The cables, blocks, and hooks, used in 
skidding logs by steam power. 

Rigging slinger —A member of a yarding crew, 
whose chief duty is to place chokers or grabs on 
logs. In steam skididng, one who attaches the rig¬ 
ging to trees. 

Ring rot —Decay in a log which follows the annual 




56 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


rings more or less closely. 

Rise —The difference in diameter, or taper, be¬ 
tween two points in a log. 

Roll way —See Landing. 

Sapling —A tree 3 feet or over in height and less 
f han 4 inches in diameter, breasthigh. A small sap¬ 
ling is from 3 to 10 feet in height. A large sapling 
is 10 feet or over in height. 

Second fa Her —The subordinate in a crew of fal- 
lers. 

Second growth —New forest growth which comes 
up naturally, after cutting, fire, or other disturbing 
influences. 

Signal man —One who transmits orders from the 
foreman of a yarding crew, to the engineer of a yard¬ 
ing donkey. 

Silviculture —The art of producing and tending a 
forest. 

Skidder —The foreman of a crew which constructs 
skid roads. 

Skid road —A road over which logs are dragged, 
having heavy transverse skids partially sunk in the 
ground, usually at intervals of about 5 feet. 

Snipe —See Nose. 

Sniper —One who noses logs before they are 
skidded. 

Softwood —As applied to trees and logs, needle 
leafed, coniferous. 

Spool donkey —A donkey engine for winding cable, 
equipped with a spool or capstan, instead of a drum. 

Spool tender —One who guides the cable on a spool 
donkey. 

Spring board —A short board, shod at one end with 
an iron calk, which is inserted in a notch cut in a 
tree, on which the faller stands, while felling the 
tree. 

Spring pole—A device for steadying a cross cut 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 57 


saw, so that one man can use it instead of two. 

Swamper —One who clears the ground of under¬ 
brush, fallen trees, and other obstructions prepara¬ 
tory to constructing a logging road. 

Swell butted —As applied to a tree, greatly en¬ 
larged at the base. 

Swifter— A cross pole which holds logs together 
in a raft. 

Undercut —The notch cut in a tree to determine 
the direction in which the tree is to fall, and to 
prevent splitting. 

Undercutter —A skilled woodsman who chops the 
undercut in trees so that they shall fall in a proper 
direction. 

Widow maker —A broken limb hanging loose, which 
in its fall may injure a man below—or a breaking 
cable. 

Windfall —A tree thrown down by the force of 
the wind. 

TABLE SHOWING THE DIAMETER OF A LOG 
NECESSARY TO MAKE A SQUARE TIMBER 


Diameter 

Size of 

Diameter 

Size of 

of log. 

Timber. 

of log. 

Timber. 

14! . 

. 10x10 

34 . 

. 24x24 

16 . 

. 11x11 

35! . 

. 25x25 

17 . 

. 12x12 

37 . 

. 26x26 

18! .. 

. 13x13 

38! . 

. 27x27 

20 . 

. 14x14 

40 . 

. 28x28 

211 . 

. 15x15 

411 . 

. 29x29 

23 . 

. 16x16 

42| . 

. 30x30 

24! . 

. 17x17 

44 . 

. 31x31 

25! . 

. 18x18 

45! . 

. 32x32 

27 . 

. 19x19 

47 . 

. 33x33 

28 ! . 

. 20x20 

48! . 

. 34x34 

30 . 

. 21x21 

49! . 

. 35x35 

311 . 

. 22x22 

50! . 

_ 36x36 

33 . 

. 23x23 
































58 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 



To find the diameter of a log to make a square 
timber, multiply one side of square by .707, or for 
practical purposes add a cipher to one side of square 
and divide by 7. 

To find the largest size square timber that can 
be made out of a log, multiply diameter by 7 and 
divide by 10. 

Examples: 

What is the diameter of a log that will make a 
timber 21 inches square! 

Process: 

21 

10 

7)210 


30 inches diameter. Answer. 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


59 


What size timber can be made out of a log 40 
inches in daimeter? 

40 

7 


10)280 


28 inches square. Answer. 


SCALING OF LOGS 

In an address delivered before the Pacific Log¬ 
ging Congress at Portland, Oregon, on July 21, 1910, 
D. L. Wiggins, manager of the Columbia River Log 
Scaling & Grading Bureau, set forth in a compre¬ 
hensive manner the following method of scaling 
Pacific Coast Logs and other interesting informa¬ 
tion on this subject that will be of immense benefit 
to the novice, valued by the experienced scaler and 
appreciated by the logger and millman. 

A piece of oak or hickory about 6 feet long, 
graduated into inches, slightly tapered, a steel end, 
chisel-shaped, another piece of steel about 6 inches 
long at right angles to the main shaft, constitute the 
working tools of a scaler. 

If trees all grew straight and round and sound 
the matter of scaling would be reduced to a very 
simple proposition; but such is not the case. De¬ 
fects are numerous and peculiar to the district from 
which the logs come or the trees grow. 


DEFECTS IN LOGS 

Defects in logs can be largely summarized as fol- 






60 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


lows: Conk, both blind and open, stump rot, rotten 
and black knots, spike knots, pitch pockets, pitch 
seams, pitch rings, running partially or altogether 
around the logs and showing on one or both ends, 
an excessive amount of gum in the butt, crooked 
logs, and logs injured in falling—having shattered 
sides, wide shakes, where the fiber of the wood has 
separated, bruised ends caught by striking against 
each other when running down steep chutes. 

The above probably will cover the main points 
which have to be passed on by the scaler when 
scaling and on which he must decide. The peculiar 
defect which causes a scaler the most thought and 
of which he knows the least as far as actual damage 
to the log is concerned is open or exposed conks. 


CULLING LOGS 

To determine what is to be done with the log, 
the location of the defect must at all times be taken 
into consideration; if near one end and only ap¬ 
pears on the surface, a fairly accurate guess can be 
made as to what shall be cut off the end, or inches 
in diameter to be taken off to clear it of the rot. 
If a number of such defects are found on the log 
and distributed, “condemnation proceedings” are im¬ 
mediately commenced and speedily terminated by 
placing the brand “cull” on it. Just here we would 
say that it is our belief that a man should look 
carefully over a log before the culling process is 
used; this is just where the careful man will differ 
from the careless or indifferent. It is a simple mat¬ 
ter to say “cull;” when that is done the log is out 
of the way, but many times it is not justice to the 
man who has gone to the expense of putting the 
log into the raft. If there is sufficient amount of 
good material in the log to pay the mill for the cut¬ 
ting of the good and the bad material with a rea¬ 
sonable profit, the log should be scaled. 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


61 


THE BLIND CONK 

The blind conk is more deceptive and at times 
passed over without notice and only the really ex¬ 
perienced scaler will notice it; if seen, the same 
or better judgment of the scaler is called for in ar¬ 
riving at a conclusion as to the value of the log or 
the damage done by this defect, thus differing from 
the open conk in this respect. Nature has done 
its best to repair the damage to the tree by causing 
a thin coating of wood to grow over the wound; but 
there are still left marks that can be readily seen; 
the healed wood looks something like a bad burn 
on a person’s hand; it is healed, but the lines and 
wrinkles never disappear. 


STUMP ROT 

Stump rot is very easily handled. It does not 
require any great amount of experience to know 
how much the log is injured by this; the cutting off 
process eliminated this, but in all cases the man 
with the stick must exercise fairness. To cut off 
4 feet when 2 feet will abundantly clear the log of 
the trouble is not fair. 


THE OLD SYSTEM 

Under the old system of scaling, the knot question 
had to be considered to a greater extent than under 
the present system. Largely followed, black knots 
produce poor lumber; so, when they were black or 
loose, or spiked, or too large^the scaler took enough 
off the diameter or actual scale to make the log the 
same in value, as nearly as possible, as the log 
without the defects named. Under the grading sys¬ 
tem the price now takes care, to a great extent, of 
the knot problem. 




62 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


PITCH SEAMS AND RINGS 

We have now to deal with the pitch rings found 
in almost all districts, and especially in the large 
yellow fir logs—the accumulation of gum in the butt 
of a log caused by the gum gradually settling to 
that point during the growth, being heavier than the 
sap, the latter not being able to carry it up and dis¬ 
tribute it. separates the fiber of the wood. a re¬ 
ceptacle is then formed and year by year adds to 
the store until the ring is formed, running verti¬ 
cally or all around the log. In meeting this defect 
the scaler must take into consideration the location 
of the ring and determine to what extent the log is 
injured. If the ring is near the surface the injury 
is less than if more distant, say 6 to 8 inches. In 
either case the width of the lumber is decreased as 
well as the depth of the cut, and it is at once made 
unfit as far as stepping or wide finish is concerned. 
From one to 5 or 6 inches will be taken off from 
the diameter for serious defects of the nature 
named. Should this seam or gum streak show at 
the top end as well as the butt, as it does at times, 
it will then destroy any hope of getting timber out 
of the center or dimension that is of much value. 


DOUBLE PITCH RINGS 

The double ring at times is found and is treated 
in about the same manner as has been described, 
the deductions being made according to the location 
of the rings and the general appearance of the log 
and what it will produce after the outer surface is 
taken off. At the best, the latter can not help but 
be very narrow and of inferior quality. 

THE GUMMY BUTT 

The gummy butt is easily handled; the cutting-off 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


G3 


process or decrease in diameter is used and is taken 
according to the judgment of the scaler, but gen¬ 
erally two to four inches will take care of this 
particular defect, and the material produced from 
such butts is useless, except for wood. While kiln 
drying carbonizes this gum, the discoloration is still 
there and is always cut off at the trimmer by the 
grader. 


OTHER DEFECTS 

A large number of other defects come under the 
scaler’s observation, and he must decide at once 
how much or how little depreciation is caused by 
what he sees. These can probably be summarized 
as crooked logs, burns, bruises on the ends or sides, 
pieces knocked out of the log in falling or bucking, 
or by being run down chutes and striking each 
other. 


POINTERS FOR THE SCALER 

The scaler should have a good general idea of 
the lumber trade. Not only should he know logs, 
but he should also have the time and opportunity to 
see the logs from the various districts cut in the 
mill, so that his own judgment can be corrected by 
noting during the cutting of the log whether the 
defect he sees injures the log more or less than his 
judgment indicated at the time it was scaled. 

In fact, the scaler, to be a good one, must have 
more than a general knowledge of his work; ex¬ 
perience in lumber as well as logs is necessary, and 
then last, and foremost of all, must be the man “be¬ 
hind the stick,” where there is such great opportun 
ity for variation in scale without giving much rea¬ 
sonable ground for questioning of integrity. It is 
of the greatest importance that the scaler at all 
times keep in mind that there are two parties usu- 





64 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


ally interested—buyer and seller—but giving to the 
mill in every case the benefit of any doubt that may 
be in his mind. This for the reason that there are 
always defects in logs that can never be taken into 
account in scaling. 

There are still men to be found that make the 
claim that where a scaler knows that logs from a 
district have a defect peculiar to them the scaler 
should make an allowance for this, and here is where 
the argument begins. The claim is that where the 
log has two good ends and good surface it is not 
the province of the scaler to reduce the size of the 
log in order that he may take care of something he 
can not see; to do so, or allow this to become cus¬ 
tom, is simply inviting dishonest work. This is a 
matter purely between buyer and seller where the 
price should regulate, and not the scale. The scaler 
can only see the surface and ends and must make 
his decision on what he can see and not on what he 
thinks may be in the interior. If the purchaser 
knows of any defect in logs from a district, his 
business is either not to buy or settle the matter in 
price per thousand with the owner, and not expect 
it to be done by the scaler. 


LOG SCALING IN BRITISH COLUMBIA 

Prom an address before the Pacific Logging Con¬ 
gress, at Portland, Oregon, by Andrew Haslam, 
Timber Inspector and Supervisor of Scales, Van¬ 
couver, B. C. 


THE OLD RULE 

The Doyle rule was used in British Columbia pre¬ 
vious to 1902, and each mill had its own scaler, who 
scaled all the logs bought or logged for the mill. 
The government appointed several scalers without 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 65 


salary that could be called on in case of dispute. 
The system was not satisfactory and gave rise to 
a great many disputes that were difficult of settle¬ 
ment. 

In 1901 the government appointed a committee to 
formulate a log scale that would correct the errors 
of the Doyle rule. The committee was Messrs. Alex¬ 
ander, King and the writer. Mr. Alexander repre¬ 
sented the mills, Mr. King the loggers and the 
writer the government interest. 


BASIS OF NEW RULE 

This committee ignored all previous rules and to 
arrive at an accurate result had a drawing made 
of the end of each size of log from 12 inches dia¬ 
meter to 73 inches, including both. The drawing 
was made showing a slab 1 of an inch thick on each 
of the four sides. Inside of the slab a kerf | inch, 
then the log inside that was laid off in inch boards 
and | inch kerf alternately. Everything 3 inches 
and over in width was calculated in the contents, 
but under was not. 


METHOD OF MEASURING DIAMETER AND 
LENGTH 

Logs that are not round are measured two ways, 
and the mean diameter on the small end is taken 
for calculating the contents of the log up to 40 feet 
long. Over 40 feet there is an increase in the dia¬ 
meter of one inch for each 10 feet over 40 feet. 

THE NEW RULE 

The rule made on this base was legalized by an act 
of the legislature in 1892 and was named the 
“British Columbia Log Scale,” and the use of it 
made compulsory west of the Coast Range of moun- 




66 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


tains. East of this the Doyle was legal until July 1, 
1909. The British Columbia log scale is now legal 
all over the province. 

The old method of allowing the mills to have their 
own scaler was legal until July 1, 1906, when the 
government appointed a supervisor and scaler to 
do the work west of the Coast Range of mountains. 
In making these appointments the government pays 
a regular monthly salary and charges 5 cents a 
thousand feet for all scaling, or, if called for, grad¬ 
ing. The mill is supposed to pay all the scaling fees, 
but charges the logger one-half. 

THE SCALER 

When scalers are required, an order is sent to 
the supervisor’s office, who sends out the first scaler 
reporting after receipt of the order. In this way 
neither the millman nor the logger knows who will 
be the scaler. Either party has a right to demand 
a rescale. The scaler who does the rescaling is not 
allowed to make up his boom; he simply sets down 
the length and diameter of the log and the contents 
is calculated in the office of the supervisor, so that 
there can be no collusion between scalers. If the 
rescale is within 3 per cent, of the original scale 
it is held to verify the original. If it is over 3 per 
cent., there is another scale by one of the scalers 
or by the acting supervisor. The supervisor’s or 
assistant’s scale is final and there is no appeal 
from it. 


RULES FOR GRADING LOGS IN BRITISH 
COLUMBIA 

In August, 1906, the loggers and millmen met and 
agreed on rules for grading all logs, except cedar. 
The government consented to the use of these rules, 
which gives them a permanency insofar as the 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


67 


government’s consent is concerned, but there is 
nothing in the statutes to make them legal. The 
following is a copy of the rules: 

Flooring—Logs suitable for flooring, reasonably 
straight; not less than 30 inches in diameter nor 
less than 20 feet long; clean; free from such defects 
as would impair the value for clear lumber. 

Merchantable—Logs not less than 14 inches in 
diameter; sound; free from rotten knots or bunch 
knots; reasonably straight; the grain straight 
enough to insure strength. 

Rough—Logs having visible defects, such as 
crooks, bad knots or other defects that would impair 
the value and lower the grade below merchantable. 

Culls—Logs which will not produce 50 per cent, 
of their contents in saleable lumber shall be classed 
as culls. 

In all cases the scaler has the right to use his 
own judgment. There are defects characteristic of 
timber in certain localities for which it is impossible 
to make rigid rules. 

July 1, 1909, the British Columbia log scale was 
legally extended over the whole province and the 
government is now putting the necessary machinery 
in force to make its use compulsory over the whole 
province. 

Take the scale as a whole and the method of 
operation, I believe it is as free from defects or 
from influence of eithes parties interested as it 
can be at the present time. No doubt changed con¬ 
ditions may make changes necessary, but so far I 
believe there has been an honest effort to do what 
is fair between man and man. I believe the effort 
has been fairly successful. 





68 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


DESCRIPTION OF THE MORE IMPORTANT 
LOG RULES 

THE SCRIBNER RULE 

This is the oldest log scale now in general use. 
It was originally published in Scribner’s Lumber 
and Log Book, in later editions of which it was re¬ 
placed by the Doyle Rule. It is now usually called 
the “Old Scribner Rule,” and is used to some extent 
in nearly every state. The rule was based on com¬ 
putations derived from diagrams drawn to show the 
number of inch boards that can be sawed from logs 
of different sizes after allowing for waste. The 
contents of these boards was then calculated and 
the table built up in this way. Sometimes the 
Scribner Rule is converted into what is known as 
the Scribner Decimal Rule by dropping the units 
and rounding the values to the nearest tens. Thus 
107 board feet would be written 11 in the Decimal 
Rule; 101 would be written 10. The Hyslop Rule 
is practically the same as the Scribner Decimal 
Rule. The Scribner Rule is known in Minnesota as 
the Minnesota Standard Rule. In the original table 
no values were given below a diameter of 12 inches. 

In the judgment of most sawyers, the Scribner 
Rule gives very fair results for small logs cut by 
circular saws (about 8 gauge), but that for larger 
logs, about 28 inches, for example, the results are 
too small. It often happens that defects are greater 
in large logs than in small ones, because the larger 
are from older trees, which are more likely to be 
overmature. Even with these, however, the Scrib¬ 
ner Rule is fairly satisfactory if the scaler does not 
make a further deduction for defects. As a matter 
of fact, a log rule should make no allowance for 
defect, because that is unfair to high-grade sound 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


69 


logs; only the scaler should make such allowance. 
In sound logs the saw cut has been known to over¬ 
run the Scribner scale from 10 to 20 per cent. 

The Forest Service of the United States Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture has adopted the Scribner Deci¬ 
mal Rule for timber sales on the National Forests 
It has been in use for about four years and, in the 
main, has proved satisfactory, since competitive bids 
enable the buyer to bid higher if the character of 
the logs indicates a mill overrun. 

THE DOYLE RULE 

The Doyle Rule is variously known as the Con¬ 
necticut River Rule, the St. Croix Rule, the Thurber 
Rule, the Moore and Beeman Rule, and the Scribner 
Rule—the last name due to the fact that it is now 
printed in Scribner’s Lumber and Log Book. It is 
used throughout the entire country, and is more 
widely employed than any other rule. It is con¬ 
structed by deducting 4 inches from the small diame¬ 
ter of the log as an allowance for slab, squaring one- 
quarter of the remainder, and multiplying the result 
by the length of the log in feet. 

The important feature of the formula is that the 
width of slab is always uniform, regardless of the 
size of the log. This waste allowance is altogether 
too small for large logs and is excessive for small 
ones. The principal is mathematically incorrect, 
for the product of perfect logs of different sizes 
follows an entirely different mathematical law, and 
it is, therefore, astonishing that this incorrect rule, 
which gives wrong results for both large and small 
logs, should have so general a use. 

Where the loss by defects in the timber and waste 
in milling have accidentally about balanced the in¬ 
accuracies of the rule, fairly accurate results have 
been obtained. Frequently, however, mill men 
recognize the shortcomings of the rule and make 




70 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


corrections to meet their special requirements. In 
general, the mill cut overruns the Doyle log scale 
by about 25 per cent, for short logs 12 to 20 inches 
in diameter; and for long logs with a small top 
diameter the overrun is very much higher. 

THE SPAULDING RULE 

The Spaulding is the statute rule of California, 
adopted by an act of the legislature in 1878. It is 
used also in Oregon, Washington, Utah, and Nevada 
It was computed from carefully drawn diagrams of 
logs from 10 to 96 inches in diameter at the small 
end. Mill men seem to be well satisfied with its 
results. It is very similar to the Scribner Rule. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


71 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 

DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

16 . 

| 77 

94 

114 

137 

161 

183 

18 . 

1 87 

106 

129 

154 

181 

211 

20 . 

96 

118 

143 

171 

201 

235 

22 . 

I 106 

130 

157 

188 

221 

258 

24 . 

116 

142 

172 

206 

242 

282 

26 . 

125 

153 

186 

223 

262 

304 

28 . 

134 

164 

200 

240 

282 

323 

30 . 

144 

176 

214 

257 

302 

352 

32 . 

j 154 

188 

228 

274 

322 

376 

34 . 

| 164 

l 

200 

243 

291 

342 

393 

36 . 

| 174 

212 

258 

308 

362 

422 

38. 

| 183 

224 

272 

325 

382 

446 

40 . 

| 192 

236 

286 

342 

402 

470 

42 .| 

1 

202 | 

248 

300 

359 

422 

492 

1 

44 . 

I 212 J 

260 j 

| 314 

376 

442 

516 

46 . 

222 | 

272 | 

329 

394 

463 

540 

48 . 

232 I 

284 | 

344 

412 

484 

564 

50 . 

241 | 

l 

295 | 

358 

429 

503 

587 

52 .| 

250 

306 

372 

446 

524 

608 

54 .I 

i 

259 

317 

386 

463 

544 

632 

1 

56 .I 

1 

268 

| 

328 

400 

480 

564 

656 

1 

58 .| 

1 

278 

340 

414 

497 

584 

680 

! 

60 .| 

288 

352 | 

428 

514 

604 

706 









































72 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

16 . 

216 

245 

276 

308 

341 

376 

18 . 

243 

276 

310 

346 

384 

423 

20 . 

270 

306 

345 

385 

426 

470 

22 . 

297 

337 

379 

423 

469 

517 

24 . 

324 

368 

414 

462 

512 

564 

26 . 

360 

398 

448 

500 

554 

611 

28 . 

378 

428 

482 

538 

596 

658 

30 .| 

404 

460 | 

516 | 

576 | 

640 | 

704 

32 . 

432 

490 

552 

616 

682 

752 

34 . 

458 

520 

586 

654 

724 

798 

36 . 

486 

552 

620 

692 

768 

846 

38 . 

512 

582 

654 

730 

810 

892 

40 . 

540 

612 

690 

770 

852 

940 

42 . 

566 

644 

724 

808 

896 

986 

44 . 

596 

674 

758 

846 

938 

1,034 

46 . 

620 

704 

792 

884 

980 

1,080 

48 . 

648 

734 

828 

924 

1,024 

1,128 

50 . 

674 

766 

861 

961 

1,066 

1,174 

52 . 

720 

796 

896 

1,000 

1,108 

1,220 

54 . 

728 

826 

930 

1,038 

1,151 

1,268 

56 . 

764 

858 

964 

1,076 

1,192 

1,316 

58 . 

782 

888 

998 

1,114 

1,236 

1,362 

60 .| 

808 | 

920 | 

1,032 | 

1,152 | 

1,280 | 

1,408 









































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


73 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

16 . 

412 

449 

1 

488 

528 

569 

612 

18 . 

463 

505 

549 

594 

640 

683 

20 . 

515 

561 

610 

660 

711 

765 

22 . 

566 

617 

671 

726 

782 

841 

24 . 

618 

674 

732 

792 

854 

918 

26 . 

668 

730 

792 

858 

924 

994 

28 . 

720 

786 

854 

924 

996 

1,070 

30 . 

774 

842 

915 | 

990 

1,066 

1,146 

32 . 

824 

898 

976 

1,056 

1,138 

1,224 

34 . 

874 

954 

1,036 

1,122 

1,208 

1,300 

36 . 

926 

1,010 

1,098 

1,188 

1,280 

1,376 

38 . 

978 

1,066 

1,158 

1,254 

1,352 

1,452 

40 . 

1,030 

1,122 

1,220 

1,320 

1,422 

1,530 

42 . 

1,080 

1,178 

1,281 

1,386 

1,493 

1,606 

44 . 

1,134 

1,234 

1,342 

1,452 

1,565 

1,682 

46 . 

1,184 

1,290 

1,402 

1,518 

1,636 

1,758 

48 . 

1,236 

1,348 

1,464 

1,584 

1,708 

1,836 

50 . 

1,289 

1,404 

1,524 

1,650 

1,778 

1,911 

52 . 

1,338 

1,460 

1,584 

1,716 

1,848 

1,988 

54 . 

1,390 

1,516 

1,646 

1,782 

1,920 

2,064 

56 . 

1,440 

1,572 

1,706 

1,838 

1,992 

2,140 

58 . 

1,494 

1,628 

1,768 

1,914 

2,062 

2,226 

60 . 

1,548 

1,684 

1,830 

1,980 

2,132 | 

2,292 











































74 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

16 . 

656 

701 

748 

796 

845 

897 

18 . 

738 

789 

841 

895 

951 

1,009 

20 . 

820 

876 

935 

995 

1,056 

1,121 

22 . 

902 

964 

1,028 

1,094 

1,162 

1,233 

24 .. 

984 

1,052 

1,122 

1,194 

1,268 

1,346 

26 . 

1,066 

1,139 

1,214 

1,292 

1,372 

1,458 

28 . 

1,148 

1,226 

1,308 

1,392 

1,478 

1,570 

30 . 

1,230 

1,314 

1,402 

1,492 

1,584 

1,682 

32 . 

1,312 

1,402 

1,496 

1,592 

1,690 

1,794 

34 . 

1,394 

1,490 

1,588 

1,690 

1,796 

1,906 

36 . 

1,476 

1,578 

1,682 

1,790 

1,902 

2,013 

38 . 

1,558 

1,664 

1,776 

1,890 

2,006 

2,130 

40 . 

1,640 

1,752 

| 1,870 

1,990 

2,112 

2,242 

42 . 

1,722 

1,840 

1,963 

2,089 

2,218 

2,354 

44 . 

1,804 

1,928 

2,056 

2,188 

2,324 

2,466 

46 . 

1,886 

2,016 

2,150 

2,283 

2,430 

2,579 

48 . 

1,968 

2,104 

2,244 

2,388 

2,536 

2,692 

50 . 

2,050 

2,190 

2,337 

2,486 

2,640 

2,804 

52 . 

2,132 

2,278 

2,430 

2,586 

2,746 

2,916 

54 . 

56 . 

58 . 

60 . 

2,214 

2,364 

2,522 

2,684 

2,850 

3,023 






































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

36 

37 j 

38 

39 

40 

41 

16 . 

950 

1,006 

1,064 

1,124 

1,185 

1,248 

18 . 

1,069 

1,132 

1,197 

1,264 

1,333 

1,404 

20 . 

1,188 

1,258 

1,330 

1,405 

1,481 

1,560 

22 . 

1,307 

1,384 

1,463 

1,545 

1,629 

1,716 

24 . 

1,426 

1,510 

1,596 

1,686 

1,778 

1,872 

26 . 

1,544 

1,634 

1,728 

1,826 

1,926 

2,023 

28 . 

1,662 

1,760 

1,862 

1,966 

2,074 

2,184 

30 . 

1,782 

1,886 

1,994 

2,106 

2,222 

2,340 

32 . 

1,900 

2,012 

2,128 

2,248 

2,370 

2,496 

34 . 

2,020 

2,138 

2,261 

2,388 

2,518 

2,652 

36 . 

2,138 

2,264 

2,394 

2,528 

2,666 

2,808 

38 . 

2,256 

2,390 

2,526 

2,668 

2,814 

2,964 

40 . 

2,376 

2,516 

2,660 

2,810 

2,962 

3,120 

42 . 

2,495 

2,642 

2,793 

2,950 

3,110 

3,276 

44 . 

2,614 

2,768 

2,926 

3,090 

3,258 

3,432 

46 . 

2,732 

2,894 

3,059 

3,230 

3,407 

3,588 

48 . 

2,852 

3,020 

3,192 

3,372 

3,556 

3,744 

50 . 

2,970 

3,144 

3,324 

3,512 

3,704 

3,900 

52 . 

3,088 

3,270 

3,458 

3,652 

3,856 

4,056 

J 

54 . 

56 . 

58 . 

60 . 

3,206 

3,394 

3,590 

1 

3,792 

4,004 

4,212 

1 









































76 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

16 . 

1,312 

1,377 | 

1,448 

1,512 

1,581 

1,652 

18 . .. 

1,476 

1,549 | 

| 1,629 

1,701 

1,779 

1,858 

20 . 

1,640 

1,721 

1,810 

1,890 

1,976 

2,065 

22 . 

1,804 

1,893 

1,991 

2,079 

2,174 

2,271 

24 . 

1,968 

2,066 | 

2,172 

2,268 

2,372 

2,478 

26 . 

2,132 

2,238 

2,352 

2,456 

2,568 

2,684 

28 . 

2,296 

2,410 

2,534 

2,646 

2,766 

2,890 

30 . 

2,460 

2,582 

2,714 

2,834 

2,964 

3,096 

32 . 

2,624 

2,754 

2,896 

3,024 

3,162 

3,304 

34 . 

2,788 

2,926 

3,076 

3,212 

3,360 

3,510 

36 . 

2,952 

3,098 

3,258 

3,402 

3,558 

3,716 

38 . 

3,116 

3,270 

3,439 

3,590 

3,755 

3,923 

40 . 

3,280 

3,442 

3,620 

3,780 

3,952 

4,130 

42 . 

3,444 

3,614 





44 . 

3,608 

3,786 | 





46 . 

3,772 

3,959 





48 . 

3,936 

4,132 





50 . 

4,100 

4,304 





52 . 

4,264 

4,476 





54 . 

4,428 

4,648 

1 




56 . 







58 . 







60 . 











































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


Length 
in feet. 

48 

49 

1 

50 

51 

52 

53 

16 . 

1,724 

1,797 

1,872 

1,948 

2,025 

2,104 

18 . 

1,939 

2,022 

2,106 

2,191 

2,278 

2,367 

20 . 

2,155 

2,246 

2,340 

2,435 

2,531 

2,630 

22 . 

2,370 

2,470 

2,574 

2,678 

2,784 

2,893 

24 . 

2,586 

2,696 

2,808 

2,922 

3,038 

3,156 

26 . 

2,800 

2,920 

3,044 

3,164 

3,290 

3,418 

28 . 

3,016 

3,144 

3,276 

3,408 

3,544 

3,682 

30 . 

3,232 

3,370 

3,510 

3,652 

3,796 

3,944 

32 . 

3,448 

3,594 

3,744 

3,896 

4,050 

4,203 

34 . 

3,663 

3,819 

1 3,978 

4,139 

4,303 


36 . 

3,879 

4,043 

4,212 

4,383 

4,556 


38 . 

4,094 

4,268 

4,446 

4,626 

4,809 


40 . 

42 . 

44 . 

46 . 

48 . 

50 . 

52 . 

54 . 

56 . 

58 . 

1 

60 .1 

4,310 

i 

1 

4,492 

1 

4,680 

4,870 

5,062 










































7 8 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SPAULDING LOG SCALE 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 





















THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


79 


SCALING AND GRADING RULES OF THE COLUM¬ 
BIA RIVER LOG SCALING AND GRADING 
BUREAU 

No. 1 Logs shall be 30 inches and over in diame¬ 
ter inside the hark at the small end and not less 
than 16 or more than 40 feet in length, and shall, 
in the judgment of the scaler, be practically suit¬ 
able for the manufacture of upper grades of lumber. 

No. 2 Logs shall be 16 inches and over in diame¬ 
ter inside the bark at the small end and not less 
than 16 or more than 40 feet in length, and shall, 
in the judgment of the scaler, be practically suit¬ 
able for the manufacture of merchantable lumber. 

No. 3 Logs shall be 12 inches and over in diame¬ 
ter inside the bark at the small end and not less 
than 16 or more than 40 feet in length, and shall, 
in the judgment of the scaler, be practically suit¬ 
able ffor the manufacture of inferior grades of 
lumber. 

Cull Logs shall be any logs which in the judgment 
of the scaler are not practically suitable for manu¬ 
facture. 

All logs to be scaled by the Spaulding Rule. 

GROWTH OF TREES 

Since there is a marked tendency among timber- 
land owners to cut their timber with an eye to the 
future, some knowledge of the growth of forest 
trees becomes important. 

Trees grow by adding each year a layer of wood 
underneath the bark. Since each year contains 
only one growing season and the spring and sum¬ 
mer part of this layer are not alike, each year’s 
growth, layer, or “annual ring” usually is distin¬ 
guishable. The central fact of tree growth is that 
each ring means a year. The exceptions to this 
are not important enough to merit notice here. 



80 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


DIAMETER GROWTH 

Some trees grow so slowly that a hand lens is 
necessary to clearly distinguish the rings, others 
may have rings a half inch in width. In any case, 
a little practice improves the ability to note all the 
rings. 

To find the age of a felled tree at any section, 
'.then, requires only the accurate counting of the 
rings. The total age of the tree is shown by the 
total number of rings at the ground; or the total 
number of rings on the stump plus the number of 
years required to grow as high as the stump. An 
examination of a number of small trees would give 
an idea of the time required to grow up to stump 
height. This varies from one year in trees coming 
up as stump sprouts to as high as twenty years 
or more in some Rocky Mountain conifers, for 
heights of 1 to 3 feet. 

Since trees often grow faster on one side than 
another, the average growth is gotten only by 
finding the average radius and counting and mea¬ 
suring the rings along it. Thus the radius of the 
tree may be found at ten, twenty, thirty years, etc., 
and by doubling these the diameters are found at 
these ages 


HEIGHT GROWTH 

The height growth is found by counting the rings 
at different sections and subtracting from the rings 
at the lowest cut. (If this cut is not at the ground, 
add an approximate number of years to cover stump 
height.) Thus a white-pine tree in Minnesota, with 
a diameter of 30 inches and a heigth of 110 feet, 
showed 176 rings on the stump 2 feet from the 
ground. Adding four years as the time to grow 
these first 2 feet would show a total age of 176+4 
or one hundred and eighty years. At the upper end 
of the first 16-foot log it showed 165 rings; at the 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


81 


second, 155 rings; at the third, 140 rings; at the 
fourth, 120 rings . at the fifth, 94 rings. Hence, the 
first 18 feet (2-foot stump-{-16-foot log) grew in 180 
—165, or fifteen years; the first 34 feet (2+16 + 16) 
in 180—155, or twenty-five years; the first 50 feet 
(2+16+16+16) in 180—140, or forty years; the first 
82 feet (2+16+16+16+16+16) 180—94, or eighty- 
six years. The last 28 feet required 180—86, or 
ninety-four years, for their growth, indicating that 
the height growth had fallen off rapidly. 

THE TREE BORER 

The tree borer or wood grub worm 
is about three to four inches long; its 
body is about half an inch in diameter 
and of a light cream color. The head, 
which is smaller than the body, is 
black and has two projections, which 
appear like the upper parts of a 
beak. They are placed on a level and 
slightly apart, being used as cutters 
by the worm to bore into the tree. 

This borer attacks windfalls, dead 
timber, or trees that have been killed 
by fire, and though they do not bore 
into Douglas Fir as rapidly as East¬ 
ern Pine, holders of timber limits 
should, if possible, log off infected 
sections without delay, as the de¬ 
structive work of this borer will ren¬ 
der trees useless in a few years. 

A peculiar fact noted about these borers, is that 
they have caused the greatest destruction to the 
timber on the land which inclines towards the sun. 







82 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


On the slopes where the ground is shaded most of 
the time, they do but little damage. 

The borings of grubs are greatly influenced by 
the character of the wood of the trees. It is a 
noticeable fact that trees of “yellow fir” are not 
as seriously infested as trees of “red fir” in like 
situations. This condition is probably due to the 
difference in the texture of the wood or its chemical 
composition. Whatever the cause may be, the 
fact remains that yellow fir is less susceptible to 
insect attacks than red fir. 


MINING LUMBER 


GENERAL INFORMATION 

Few persons not directly connected with mining 
or the supplying of mine timbers, realize the extent 
to which lumber is used underground. They know, 
of course, that it has extended and varied uses for 
different construction purposes in connection with 
mining, but what they do not see is the far greater 
amount used underground in replacing rock taken 
out, in order to prevent caving of the over-hanging 
ground, and in keeping clear the main workings of 
the shaft. 


TEMPORARY TIMBERS 

There are two such classes of timber; first, that 
which is of a temporary nature and serves its pur¬ 
pose in the short time occupied in taking the ore 
from the “stope,” as the places from which ore is 
being taken are called. When the ore is mined, the 
surrounding rock is held in place by bracing it with 
heavy timbers, “framed” into rectangular sets. 
After taking the ore from the space directly above 
the first set of braces, a second set is built in on top, 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


83 


and so they continue to he placed one above the 
other, as the removal of ore progresses. The ser¬ 
vice of these temporary timbers ends when the ore 
has been entirely worked out. After a time these 
timbers decay, to a point where the pressure of the 
rock walls crushes them in. This causes no damage 
if, as has been said, the mining work has been fin¬ 
ished; but it sometimes happens that decay has 
weakened the timbers to such an extent that the 
cave-in occurs prematurely. 

PERMANENT TIMBERS 

Of still greater importance is the second of the 
two classes—the permanent timbers. The factors 
in the choice of such timbers are not only their 
strength and firmness, but also their ability to 
resist decay. The well known condition of our tim¬ 
ber supply has driven consumers of mine timbers 
to a study of this decay and its prevention. By 
treating the permanent timbers with some one of 
the preservatives, they may be made to resist de¬ 
cay almost indefinitely at only a slight additional 
cost. Not only this, but since a timber when it is 
once treated retains its original strength, many of 
the so-called “inferior timbers” that have been 
hitherto considered almost valueless because of 
their rapid decay, will find a large use in many 
localities. 


DECAY 

An interesting feature in this connection is the 
spread of decay in old workings caused by infection 
from nearby timbers. Place a fresh green post be¬ 
tween two sticks that are already “sick” and the 
new piece will become infected and decay much 
more rapidly than if it were isolated. In one large 
mine, a two mile tunnel was completed eight years 
ago, and during the first four years the timbers 




84 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


stood up in fine shape. Then signs of decay began 
to creep in here and there, and since then the dis¬ 
ease has spread throughout the entire length of the 
tunnel, necessitating an annual expenditure of be¬ 
tween four and five thousand dollars for replacing 
timbers rendered unsafe, through decay. Less than 
one-fourth of this amount goes for timber, the re¬ 
mainder representing the cost of framing and in¬ 
stalling. 


ANNUAL REPLACEMENT 

It has been estimated that the average life of an 
untreated timber is approximately three years. With 
proper preservative treatment, this life may be in¬ 
creased approximately ten years. Assuming the 
total quantity, both round and square, in use, to be 
500,000,000 cubic feet, and that 40 per cent of this 
amount can be advantageously treated, then, if none 
were treated, the annual replacement would amount 
to one-third of 200,000,000, or approximately 67,- 
000,000 cubic feet. Assuming that all were given 
proper preservative treatment the annual replace¬ 
ment would then amount to one-thirteenth of 200,- 
000,000, or approximately 15,300,000 cubic feet. 
Hence, by proper reservative treatment of all mine 
timbers, there would ensue an annual saving of 
approximately 51,700,000 cubic feet or the equivalent 
of 620,400,000 feet B. M. 


ESTIMATED LIFE OF TREATED AND UN¬ 
TREATED TIMBER 

Estimate of three years average life of untreated 
mine timbers covers all timbers used and not con¬ 
fined to any one species or locality. 

The increased life of Western timber afforded by 
proper preservative treatment is shown in detail as 
follows: 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


85 


Estimated Av. Estimated Av¬ 
erage No. Yrs. erage No. Yrs. 
Species— Untreated Life. Treated Life. 

White Fir. 5 12 

Western Hemlock .... 5 10 

Spruce . 3 10 

Tamarack . 5 10 


Western Yellow Pine.. 5 10 

There are about sixty (60) plants in operation for 
the treatment of wood, with an annual output of 
approximately one and one-quarter billion feet B. M. 
Most of the plants are in the South, East and Cen¬ 
tral West. The tendency will be for them to extend 
westward as the supply of timber gradually de¬ 
creases. All of the plants are operated by consum¬ 
ers of the products. At the present time the Great 
Southern Lumber Co. is experimenting in conjunc¬ 
tion with the government, with the view of installing 
a plant for the treatment of timbers, ties and poles. 
Undoubtedly, when this work is once started, they 
will find a large market for their output. 

The different species of wood which are naturally 
resistant of decay have in former years been used 
to a very great extent. In consequence of this de¬ 
mand, the supply of these species is rapidly diminish¬ 
ing and consumers are of necessity turning to other 
species formerly disregarded. The increasing de¬ 
mand of lodge-pole pine (pinus murrayanna) and 
engleman spruce are examples. If these species are 
used in an untreated condition they will decay far 
more rapidly than those formerly employed and a 
consequent increased annual cut will ensue. The 
most important factor of wood preservation on this 
Coast is that it enables the substitution of inferior 
species; it enables the utilization of woods which 
without preservative treatment would have little or 
no value. 

Owing to the disadvantage under which consumers 
of wood products operate plants for the treatment 







86 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


of woods, it seems that lumber companies supplying 
mine timbers, railroad ties, poles and piling could 
operate such a plant at a profit and at the same time 
find a ready market for so-called inferior woods. 

Reproduced through the courtesy of “The Pioneer 
Western Lumberman,” San Francisco, Calif. 


TIMBERING SETS 

When excavating in coal and ore mines, mining 
props or timbers are used as a protection against 
a cave-in. The illustration shows what is termed 
five stick timbering for a double track stope. In 
cases where the ground is soft, a mud sill is used 
as a foundation for the legs or props to support the 
overhead beam. 

Where sawn lumber is used for this purpose, the 
beams and legs are usually 10 inches square; the 
mud sills and center supports which divide the track 
are generally 8x10 inches. These timbering sets are 
from 30 inches to about 4 feet apart, according to 
the nature of the surrounding earth. 


LAGGING 

Lagging which consists of 2xl0-inch or 2xl2-inch 
low grade plank is used on the outside and above 
the supporting sets of timbers. The side lagging 
is inserted behind the posts from the bottom up¬ 
wards and continued across to the other side. As 
soon as two or three pieces of lagging are in posi¬ 
tion filling is placed back of them to prevent their 
being broken by any sudden rush of earth. 

Lumber of varied dimensions is used for plat¬ 
forms, shafts, trestles, track and switch cross ties, 
underground stables, engine room, etc. 



the practical lumberman 



Illustration of five stick timbering for a double track 

















































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 



FACTORS DESTRUCTIVE TO ANTHRACITE 
MINE TIMBER 

(By U. S. Forest Service.) 

Forty-five per cent of mine timber is destroyed by 
decay, while breakage, wear, and insects together 
destroy the remainder. (See Fig. 1.) By direct ex¬ 
periment it is being shown that both oils and chem¬ 
ical salts, and the precaution of peeling and season¬ 
ing, prolong the life of the timber. The point of 
first practical importance, then, is: What method 
of handling and what preservative treatment will 
give the greatest service at the least expense? 

DECAY 

Decay or rot is produced solely by certain organ¬ 
isms called bacteria and fungi. The species of fungi 
most destructive to mine timbers are Fomes annosus 
and Polystictus versicolor, of which the former is 
confined almost exclusively to the pines, and the 
latter is common in red and black oaks. 







THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


89 


Germs or spores which produce decay may gain 
access to the timber at any time before or after it 
is cut, though for the most part the disease is con¬ 
tracted in the mines from decaying timber near by. 
In untreated timber, rough surfaces of bark and 
wood furnish a foothold for the spores, which sub¬ 
sequently germinate and attack the wood tissues. 
Spores may also enter timber only superficially 
treated through checks, cracks, or nail wounds. 

For a fungus to exist it must have a definite 
amount of air and water, food, and heat. If mining- 
conditions were such that the timber would be kept 
always wet or always dry, it would never decay. 
It is the alternating wet and dry conditions or con¬ 
tinuous dampness which produce rot. 

Ventilation is a very large factor in the life of 
mine timber. Poorly ventilated gangways and air 
passages, with a fair degree of moisture and a fairly 
high temperature, are favorable to fungus growth, 
and hence to rapid decay. 

It is probably impossible to exterminate disease 
and so wholly to prevent decay in mine timber. 
Right preservative treatment, together with careful 
handling of the timber, will, however, reduce both 
to a minimum. 


BREAKAGE 

A large percentage of the gangway timber used in 
anthracite mines is broken by the “squeeze’ ’and 
“crush” of coal and rock. Where timber is certain 
to be broken in a few days or weeks, expensive 
preservative treatment would not be economical. 
However, in many situations the timber is broken 
only after it has been greatly weakened by decay, 
and for these cases an inexpensive form of treat¬ 
ment may very properly be considered. 



90 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


WEAR 

Cross-ties in main haulage ways are constantly 
worn by the rails and by the feet of mules. Woodeu 
rollers, drum lagging, etc., have to be replaced when 
worn by the contact of ropes and cables. A preserva¬ 
tive treatment is obviously not suitable for timber 
subjected to this sort of wear. 


INSECT-INFESTED TIMBER 

The important part which insects play in the de¬ 
struction of mine timbers is rarely realized. They 
are for the most part brought into the mines with 
the timber. Regular and thorough inspection and the 
rigid condemnation of insect-infested timber would, 
therefore, greatly reduce the loss from this source. 

Insects bore into sound wood and greatly weaken 
it and, moreover, leave holes or galleries which en¬ 
courage the entrance of wood-destroying fungi. A 
good preservative treatment will protect the timber 
from insect attack, as well as prevent decay. If 
the bark is removed from timber soon after it is 
cut, it will not be attacked by wood-boring insects 
until the wood becomes old and dry, after which it 
may be attacked by “powder post” and other borers. 


WASTE 

In the handling of timber for its many uses in 
the mines there is some unnecessary waste. Though 
decay or a fracture is often confined to but one part 
of a set, the entire set is rendered useless. There¬ 
fore, if it is possible to preserve the threatened part, 
the whole prop or set may be saved. Again, in cer¬ 
tain situations the sizes of mine timbers may often 
be materially reduced provided they are kept sound. 
Under present conditions the timber is often large 
enough to do its work after decay has progressed 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


91 


to a considerable depth. Instead of offsetting this 
decay with sizes larger than necessary, smaller 
treated timbers may be used with economy. 

The utilization of waste mining timber has been 
carefully investigated. Short sections of broken and 
partially decayed round timber have been split into 
laggings with some success. Worn-out and broken 
planks, sills, rollers, etc., have been profitably dis¬ 
posed of to railroad companies as fuel wood for 
locomotives with the additional benefit of cleaning 
up around the collieries. Worn-out drum laggings 
and short ends of sound gangway timber, formerly 
regarded as useless, have been sawed into short 
mine plank, car lumber, pulley bearers, and slab 
plank. Rough slabs from the mills have been split 
into laggings and the refuse of the mill consumed 
as fuel. 


EXPERIMENTS 

Sets of round gangway timber averaging 13 inches 
in diameter were chosen as a basis for the experi¬ 
mental treating work. These sets, which are used 
for supporting the main haulage ways, consist of two 
legs (commonly 9 and 10 feet long) and a collar 
(from 6 to 7 feet long). They are usually placed in 
gangways at intervals of 5 feet through miles of 
passages. Each set represents about 26 cubic feet 
of timber, and one gangway frequently contains 1,000 
sets. Ten gangways to a colliery is not an unusual 
number; and since the average life of the timber 
in these gangways is hardly above two years, the 
consumption of timber in anthracite operations is 
vast. (Fig. 2.) 

PEELING THE TIMBER 

Experiments have shown that peeled timber is 
superior in durability to unpeeled timber. The space 
between the bark and the wood especially favors the 




92 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


development of wood-destroying fungi and is a 
breeding place for many forms of insect life. When, 
after placement in the mines, the bark begins to 
flake off, the timber has already begun to decay. 










THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


93 


The cost of peeling timber before it goes into the 
mine ranges from 20 cents to 50 cents per ton of 
wood, according to local conditions and the kind of 
timber. 


SEASONING THE TIMBER 

Seasoning or drying gives mining timber greater 
strength and durability. A stick of wet timber has 
only about one-half the strength of a similar stick 
absolutely dry. Though it is not practicable for min¬ 
ing companies to hold their timber until it is abso¬ 
lutely air dry, peeled timber will dry out sufficiently 
in a few months to gain in both strength and dur¬ 
ability. From two to four months is necessary for 
proper seasoning. 


TREATMENT TO RETARD DECAY 

Untreated timbers showing signs of rot or fungus 
should be washed with alum or lime water to retard 
decay and prevent the spread of infection to nearby 
timbers. 


SUPERVISION IN THE SETTING OF MINE 
TIMBER 

A contract system of timbering without proper 
supervision means setting the greatest amount of 
timber in the shortest possible time, regardless of 
where and how the timber is placed. If timber is 
so placed that it can not properly resist the strains 
to which it is subjected, and its strength is not util¬ 
ized, it represents a partial or total loss. If it will 
pay to treat timber with preservatives in order to 
resist decay, it will surely pay to handle it right to 
resist the allied factors of destruction. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


M 


INSPECTION FOR CARGO SHIPMENT 

For permanent purposes lumber should be judged 
for its strength and enduring qualities. Sawn timbers 
acting as props or posts have to resist crushing end¬ 
wise. Timbers used for beams must resist bending, 
hence they should possess stiffnes, for while the 
upper side of such a beam is in compression across 
the grain, the underside is in tension . natural sticks 
or those that would be considered good structural 
timbers should not be rejected for a reasonable 
amount of sap or wane on one or more corners, 
and variations in sawing should be allowed. 

RULES FOR GRADING MINING TIMBER ACCORD¬ 
ING TO PACIFIC LUMBER INSPECTION 
BUREAU EXPORT “G” LIST 

This grade shall consist of sound lumber, free from 
bad shakes, splits, rot and rotten knots. Will allow 
slight variations in sawing, moderate wane and sap. 

DOMESTIC LIST NO. 5 

Mining timbers shall consist of strong lumber, free 
from defects which materially weaken it. 

HOW WOOD PULP IS MADE 

Wood pulp is usually made by either one of two 
general processes, mechanical or chemical. In the 
mechanical process the wood, after being cut into 
suitable sizes and barked, is held against revolving 
grindstones in a stream of water and thus reduced 
to pulp. In the chemical process the barked wood 
is reduced to chips and cooked in large digesters 
with chemicals which destroy the cementing mate¬ 
rial of the fibers and leave practically pure cellu¬ 
lose. This is then washed and screened to render 




the practical lumberman 


95 


it suitable for paper-making. The chemicals ordi¬ 
narily used are either bi-sulphite of lime or caustic 
soda. A little over half of the pulp manufactured 
is made by the soda process. Much of the mechani¬ 
cal pulp, or ground wood as it is commonly called, 
is used in the making of newspaper. It is never 
used alone in making white paper, but always mixed 
with some sulphite fiber to give the paper strength. 
A cord of wood ordinarily yields about one ton of 
mechanical pulp or about one-half ton of chemical 
pulp. 

BURNED OVER TIMBER FOR PULPWOOD 

It is a common error to regard burned over timber 
as being suitable for the manufacture of wood pulp. 
Young green timber gives the best results for this 
class of work, as dead wood breaks up when put 
through the process of manufacture. There is also 
a great waste on account of the charred surface of 
some parts of the timber. None of which must get 
into the pulp. If this should occur the whole batch 
would be valueless. 

RAILROAD TIES 

THE FOLLOWING GIVES THE USUAL REQUIRE¬ 
MENTS OF THE U. S. GOVERNMENT WHEN 
CALLING FOR BIDS ON 7x9 CREO- 
SOTED TIES 

Ties shall be impregnated with not less than 
twelve pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot of ties. 
Oil shall be of the best quality of dead oil of coal 
tar, free from water, with specific gravity of not less 
than 1.03 and naphthalene content of not less than 
40 per cent. Timber during treatment shall not be 
subjected to a temperature exceeding that of satu¬ 
rated steam at fifteen pounds per square inch, 
gauge pressure. Oil and entire process of creosoting 
the timber shall be subject to the approval and in- 



96 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


spection of the officer detailed for the purpose, and 
the contractor shall give the bureau of yards and 
docks, Navy Department, Washington, D. C., not 
less than one week’s notice of the date when the 
timber will be treated in order that proper arrange¬ 
ments can be made for its inspection. The ties shall 
be either hewn or sawed, but the entire amount must 
be either hewn or the entire amount sawed. Lum¬ 
ber must be standard inspection, that is, shall be 
sound, with sap no objection. A small amount of 
wane will be allowed one-eighth of the width of the 
piece meausred across the face of w r ane, extending 
one-fourth of the length on one corner or its equiva¬ 
lent on two or more corners, provided that not over 
10 per cent of the pieces shall show wane. 


How to Pile Ties: The illustration shows a good 
method of piling ties, with the view of reducing 
their weight or seasoning them in preparation for 
creosoting. 













THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


97 


The outside pieces and those that center over 
ends are placed on edge, the inside courses are laid 
on their flat, thereby allowing the air to circulate 
around them. 


CROSS-TIES PER MILE 


Center to Center. 
18 inches 
21 inches 
24 inches 
27 inches 
30 inches 


Number of Ties. 

.3,520 

.3,017 

.2,640 

.2,348 

....2,113 


FOREIGN EXPORT BUSINESS 

Without doubt one of the most interesting phases 
of the lumber business is the export trade. To Great 
Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Belgium, Den¬ 
mark, Italy, South Africa, India, China, Japan, Brazil, 
Argentine Republic, Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Australia, 
New Zealand and the many islands of the Pacific 
Ocean and to other parts of the world. Pacific Coast 
forest products find their way. As a manufacturer’s 
local business is larger the second year than the 
first, so his Foreign trade, if intelligently cultivated 
and energetically fostered, is bound to grow in vol¬ 
ume and profit. The export trade involves a broader 
knowledge of the world, a better appreciation of 
other countries and their peoples, of geography, of 
habits, customs and method of thought among men 
of other nationalities. 

To Great Britain probably the largest sizes in Mer¬ 
chantable are for resawing, also the larger sizes in 
clears and selects. Long timbers are used for re* 
sawing and constructural purposes. Considerable 
decking is also shipped to the United Kingdom. 

While the exports of Pacific Coast forest products 
to France are as yet somewhat limited, yet consider* 
able quantities of clears and selects are being 








98 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


shipped there. Some merchantable lumber has also 
been shipped to France. The French customer usu¬ 
ally wants his lengths cut according to the metric 
system, and quite a few of the well known Pacmc 
Coast mills are equipped for making metrical lengths. 

To Germany, Holland and Belgium, larger sizes 
of clear and select Douglas Fir are usually shipped 
for resawing purposes, although at times conisder- 
able smaller sizes, especially in the clears and selects, 
are asked for. Hamburg is probably the largest 
market for Douglas Fir (Oregon Pine) decking that 
the Pacific Coast mills have for this material. 

Not very much lumber has been shipped to Den¬ 
mark, but a few years ago some of the Columbia and 
Willamette River mills furnished an entire steamer 
cargo of clears and decking for shipment to Copen¬ 
hagen. 

Some clears have also been shipped to Italy, but 
this market is still to be developed. 

To South Africa a great number of cargoes find 
their way yearly, composed principally of deal sizes 
and timbers for mining and constructional use. In 
the past considerable flooring has been shipped to 
South Africa. 

To far away India Douglas Fir (Oregon Pine) finds 
its way in steamer lots. Usually India takes a fair 
assortment of sizes, probably inch, inch and a half 
and two-inch thicknesses, twelve-inch widths being 
in the greatest demand. 

In China a rougher and cheaper grade of Douglas 
Fir (Oregon Pine) is usually called for, in ordinary 
constructional sizes; considerable long timber is 
also shipped to China as is also flooring. 

The demand from Japan is usually for large tim¬ 
bers for such constructional purposes as the timber 
of Japan is not fitted for, while occasionally cargoes 
are shipped in the upper grades for resawing pur¬ 
poses. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


99 


Not very much Douglas Fir finds its way to Brazil 
and the Argentine Republic, but when the supply 
of Eastern lumber becomes more limited, quite a 
trade should be developed in those countries. Dur¬ 
ing the last few years several cargoes of Douglas 
Fir and one cargo of spruce lumber from the Pacific 
Northwest has been shipped to these markets. 

Chile, Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador have always been 
large consumers of Pacific Coast Forest products. 
These countries are one of the largest markets of 
Douglas Fir and Redwood. The West Coast trade 
demands a good grade of merchantable Fir and the 
sizes usually consist of the smaller dimensions for 
constructional purposes up to a small percentage of 
large timbers. A considerable amount of select, 
especially in sizes 1x6 and 1| x 6 is called for in 
these markets. 

Australia is probably the largest market for Pacific 
Coast Forest Products, especially in Douglas Fir and 
Redwood. Considerable White Pine and Sugar Pine 
from California, and Spruce from Oregon, Washing¬ 
ton, and British Columbia is also shipped there. 
Australian orders are usually looked upon with favor, 
especially the sizes that are called for by the Mel¬ 
bourne and Adelaide markets, although some mills 
prefer the sizes that are called for in Sydney and 
Fremantle. 

This article, of course, covers merely in a general 
way the demands of Foriegn countries. A whole 
book could easily be devoted to this matter, giving 
in detail the different sizes and qualities of lumber 
required by the Foreign buyers, governed in many 
respects by the customs and tariffs of the different 
importing countries. Very few manufacturers have 
the capacity or the volume of Foreign business to 
justify direct shipment to Foreign countries on an 
economical basis, but do their Foreign business 
through export commission houses. 





100 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


In this connection quite a variety of ideas exist 
as to the function of export commission houses, and 
it is not to be denied that there is a certain amount 
of prejudice against doing business with this class 
of merchant. On the other hand, it may also be 
said that there are exaggerated ideas as to the de¬ 
sirability of restricting Foreign business exclusively, 
to the export commission houses. Be this as it may, 
it cannot be denied that more than one-half of the 
Foreign business of the United States done today 
was originally due to the activities of commission 
men. Among the firms listed as commission mer¬ 
chants there are many of high character and good 
standing. In this class of business, as in all others, 
there have been found firms that cannot be relied 
upon; but in this modern day there are facilities 
for investigating the standing of a commission house 
that should enable the manufacturer to make no 
mistake in selecting a firm with whom to transact 
his Foreign business. There is no reason for any 
manufacturer to put all others in the same class 
because he has had an unsatisfactory experience 
with one such house. 

If the manufacturer wishes to dispose of part of 
his product in Foreign countries, and is not familiar 
with the demands of the different markets, he will 
do well to select a commission house best fitted to 
look after his interests and find out the different 
requirements of the Foreign buyer, and then decide 
what class of business will be the most desirable. 
Quite a number of manufacturers find that they pre¬ 
fer West Coast of South America business, whilst 
others are so situated that the Australian trade ap¬ 
peals to them. There are a number of reliable com¬ 
mission houses admirably fitted to take care of 
Foreign business in the West Coast market, and 
there are others who are more especially fitted to 
take care of the Australian trade. Some of the larg¬ 
est exporters of Douglas Fir and Redwood have their 
own offices in the different parts of the world, and 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


101 


a firm of this kind is specially fitted to take care of 
the mill’s Foreign business as it can put them di¬ 
rectly in touch with all the various markets. 


DUTIES ON LUMBER ENTERING THE 
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA 

FROM KELLY’S CUSTOMS TARIFF OF THE 
WORLD, 1908 


Timber, undressed, in sizes of 6 x 12 (or equiva¬ 
lent) and over, per 1,000 board feet.$1.20 

New Zealand Pine, undressed, of all sizes, per 

1,000 board feet .. 1.20 

Timber, undressed, in sizes of 2i x 7 (or its 
equivalent) and upwards, and less than 6 x 12 

(or its equivalent), per 1,000 hoard feet. 4.80 

Timber, undressed, in sizes less than 2| x 7 (or 
its equivalent), door stock included, per 1,000 

board feet ..... 6.00 

Timber, dressed, per 1,000 board feet. 7.20 

Architraves, Mouldings and skirting of any mate¬ 
rial, per 1,000 lineal feet . 1.20 

Shingles, per 1,000 count (pieces) .72 

Pickets, undressed, per 100 count (pieces).60 

Pickets, dressed, per 100 count (pieces) .1.44 

Laths, per 1,000 count (pieces) . 1.80 

Laths for blinds, ad valorem.25% 

Palings, per 1,000 count (pieces) .... 3.60 

Timber for making boxes or doors, being cut 
into shape or partly dressed, per 100 super 
feet face * ..60 


* Super face means the superficial measure of those 
surfaces, except edges of the timber actually dressed 


or partly dressed. 

Hickory, undressed .Free 

Logs, not sawn .Free 



















102 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Spars, in the rough .Free 

Spokes, Rims, and Felloes of Hickory, in the 

rough .Free 

Staves, undressed .Free 

Staves, dressed or partly dressed, but not 
shaped, per 100 .$0.60 

NOTE— Ad valorem duty is one levied at a certain 
percentage of the value of the goods at the port of 
export. 


DUTY ON LUMBER ENTERING THE 
DOMINION OF NEW ZEALAND 


Timber, Palings, per 100 .$0.48 

Timber, Posts, split, per 100.. 1.92 

Timber, Rails, split, per 100.96 

Timber, sawn, dressed, per 100 sup. ft.96 

Timber, sawn, rough, per 100 sup. ft.48 

Shingles, per 1,000 pieces.48 

Lath, per 1,000 pieces.48 


DUTY ON LUMBER ENTERING CHINA 


Hk. Tls. 

Timber—Beams, hardwood, per cubic ft.0.020 

Timber—Softwood, including Douglas Fir and 
California Redwood, on a thickness of 1 inch, 

per 1,000 sup. ft.1.150 

Beams, teakwood, per cubic ft.0.081 

Laths, per 1,000 .0.210 

Masts and Spars, hardwood, value. 5% 

Masts and Spars, softwood, value . 5% 

Piles and Piling, including Douglas Fir and Cali¬ 
fornia Redwood, on a thickness of 1 inch, per 

1,000 sup. ft.1.150 

Planks, hardwood, per cubic ft.0.020 


Planks and Flooring, softwood, including Doug¬ 
las Fir and California Redwood, and allowing 






















THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


103 


10% of each shipment to be tongued and 
grooved, on a thickness of 1 inch, per 1,000 

sup. ft.1.150 

Planks and Flooring, softwood, tongued and 

grooved in excess of above 10%, value .. 5% 

Planks, teakwood, per cubic ft.0.081 

Railway Sleepers (Ties), value . 5% 

Teakwood lumber of all lengths and descrip¬ 
tions, per cubic ft.0.081 

NOTE—The Haikwan tael may be reckoned as 
usually about 62 cents (exchange value). 


DUTY ON LUMBER ENTERING JAPAN 

Yen. 

Oregon Pine, Fir and Cedar, per 100 sup. ft... 0.60 
The yen is the legal monetary unit of Japan, and 
is equivalent to 50 cents U. S. money. 


SAWS 

LINING AND FITTING LARGE CIRCULAR SAWS 

The amount of lead for Circular Saws should be 
the least amount that will keep the Saw in the cut, 
and prevent it from heating at the center. If the 
lead into the log is too much, the Saw will heat on 
the rim. If the lead out of the log is too much, the 
Saw will heat at the center. We give, therefore, the 
least amount that is used, which is one-eighth of an 
inch in 20 feet. Soft, tough, fibrous timber usually 
requires more lead than hard, close grain, or frozen 
timber. 

From the various methods used for lining the Saw 
with the carriage, we give what we think the most 
easily understood. First, see that the mandrel is 
set perfectly level, so that the Saw hangs plumb, and 
is perfectly flat on the log side. Stretch a fine line 








104 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


or thread, say, 20 feet long, across the face of the 
Saw in a parallel line with the “V” or guide track. 
This can be easily done by running the carriage back 
and forth the length of the thread, and placing each 
end of the thread an equal distance from the front 
head block. The thread being properly placed, with a 
piece of chalk, mark the Saw at the front at a point 
on a level with carriage, and measure the distance 
between the thread and Saw at this point. This be¬ 
ing done, turn the Saw half around, or until the 
marked point comes opposite the thread again, and 
once more take the measure between the thread and 
the marked point on the Saw; then slue the arbor 
around either way, as the case may require, to give 
the Saw one-thirty-second of an inch lead into the 
log in the diameter of a 60-inch Saw. 

We recommend marking the Saw and taking both 
measurements from this (marked) point on the Saw, 
as the Saw might be a trifle out of true. A measure¬ 
ment taken from the front and back of the Saw, 
without turning the Saw over, might not be per¬ 
fectly accurate. 


HANGING THE SAW 

Hang the Saw on the mandrel, and, after placing 
on the loose Collar screw up the nut with the fingers 
just enough to steady the Saw. Now, try the face 
of the Saw with the Straight Edge to see that it is 
straight; then tighten up the Collars with a wrench, 
and, if they are right, another trial with the straight 
edge will show that the position of the Saw has not 
been changed. If the rim has been thrown over 
either way, the Collars are not right, and should be 
turned in proper shape. (See sketch.) 

Sketch of Collar 

The Saw should slip freely on the mandrel, and 
close up to the fast collar. In many cases where 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


105 



the stem of the arbor is a trifle large near the collar, 
the Saw, in being forced to its place by the nut, is 
made full on the log side. Frequently it will be 
found that the metal around where the steady pins 
are driven, will be raised to form a bunch around the 
pins; if so, file or cut it off with a cold chisel. 

A six-inch collar should have a perfectly flat bear¬ 
ing of at least three-fourths of an inch on the outer 
rim, the rest being chambered out, as they hold 
tighter than a flat collar. Where collars are larger 
than six inches in diameter, this rim should be pro¬ 
portionately larger. The pin holes should be in the 
fast collar—the pins in the loose collar. In putting 
the pins into the loose collar, the holes should be 
drilled clear through the collar, so that in case the 
pins are broken off, they can be driven out with a 
punch, and thus avoid having to drill them out. We 
note most up-to-date mill builders are now putting 
them in this way. On all Saws 48 inch and larger 
we recommend 8-inch collars with %-inch pin holes 
on a 5-inch circle. 

—Courtesy of Simonds Guide for Millmen. 


TO RE-SHARPEN OLD FILES 


Saleratus 
Water .. 


4 ounces 
.1 quart 

















106 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Dissolve the saleratus in the water. Boil the old 
files or rasps in this solution for half an hour. Then 
take out, wash, and dry them. Next stand them in 
a jar, filling it up with rain water and sulphuric acid 
in the proportion of water, 1 quart; sulphuric acid, 
4 ounces. Coarse files should remain in the bath 
twelve hours and fine ones two or three hours less. 
Take them out, w r ash them clean, dry quickly and 
thoroughly, and rub them with sweet oil to prevent 
rusting. 

Another method, though not so effectual, is to pour 
a few drops of benzole upon the file and brush thor¬ 
oughly with a scratch brush. 


KNOTS AND HOW THEY ARE CLASSIFIED 

DOUGLAS FIR 

A Pin Knot does not exceed \ inch in diameter. 

Round Knots are of a circular or oval formation, 
the average measurement across the face being con¬ 
sidered the diameter. 

Spike and Slash Knots are the same, and mean 
that the knot is sawn in a lengthwise direction. 

Encased Knots usually are found in upper stock 
and are recognized by the ring of pitch which sur¬ 
rounds them; the knots on the outside of a plank may 
be encased, while on the heart side they are solid. 

A thorough knowledge of knots is essentially of 
the utmost importance when grading lumber. 

Knots spring from the heart in the same direction 
as the spokes do from the hub of a wheel. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


107 



The above illustration shows a 6 x 12 that has 
been sawn through the heart; the knots shown are 
classified as spike or slash. 

The majority of knots are black at outside point, 
and encased about one-third the distance from out¬ 
side point to the heart center. 

The encased knots that penetrate lumber of one 
inch in thickness are liable to come out when sea¬ 
soned and then surfaced; the damage is mostly 
caused by the force of the knife striking and loosen¬ 
ing some of the knots as the board passes through 
the planer. 

In lumber two inches and over in thickness, and 
of number 1 and 2 Merchantable grade, it is only in 
very rare instances that the knots come out. 

Special attention should be paid to the grain sur¬ 
rounding the knots, and the direction it takes, as 
this indicates more than anything else the strength 
of the piece. 

INSPECTION OF LUMBER CARGOES 

The inspection of lumber for the Foreign and 
Domestic export trade is governed by the grade 










108 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


usually shipped to the respective ports of different 
countries. 

The Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau of Seattle 
covers the inspection of lumber in British Columbia 
and the State of Washington and a part of Oregon. 
The Oregon and Washington Lumber Manufacturers’ 
Association of Portland covers the State of Oregon. 

Cargoes for Foreign export and Domestic ship¬ 
ment are surveyed by approved men under the super¬ 
vision of the Chief and District Supervisors, appoint¬ 
ed by the Bureau, on account of their practical ex¬ 
perience and impartial judgment. 

When shipment is completed certificates in tripli¬ 
cate are issued by the Bureau, specifying grade and 
amount tallied; these are signed and sworn to by 
the inspector before a Notary Public : they are also 
countersigned by the District Supervisor. The cer¬ 
tificates are then sent to Buyer, Seller and Inspec¬ 
tion Bureau. 

Grading rules are issued by both associations, 
covering in a general way the various grades and de¬ 
fects allowed. These rules are of material assist¬ 
ance as a matter of reference and general ideas, but 
as this lumber is shipped to almost every country in 
the world, grades covering all details are imprac¬ 
tical. 

To a great extent the inspection of lumber must 
be left in the hands of an inspector who will do 
his duty without fear or favor under all circum¬ 
stances and give Buyer and Seller a square deal. 

Since the formation of the Pacific Lumber Ihspec-' 
tion Bureau, several years ago, they have success¬ 
fully followed the traditional policy of a uniform 
grade satisfactory to conditions of trade at various 
izorts, and the employment of District Supervisors 
should be a guarantee against ineligible or unscrupu¬ 
lous inspectors being appointed by manufacturers 
who might employ an incompetent man through ig¬ 
norance of his ability or character. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


109 


When a mill company is in doubt as to the quality 
of lumber that is usually shipped to a port specified 
in an inquiry for quotation, they should communicate 
with their respective Bureau, Chief, or District 
Supervisor, who will furnish the desired information. 

On August 1st, 1911, both the above mentioned 
Bureau’s were amalgamated under the name of the 
Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau. 

The headquarters of the new organization will be 
maintained at Seattle with the Pacific Northwest 
divided into nine divisions. These districts, as far 
as the preliminary arrangements have been made 
public, are the Columbia River, Willamette Valley, 
British Columbia, Bellingham, Tacoma, Seattle, 
Southwestern Washington, Willapa and Grays Har¬ 
bors. 


TREES STRUCK BY LIGHTNING 

When lightning strikes a tree it is not the elec¬ 
tric flash that splits them open. The tree simply 
explodes like a boiler. The lightning goes into the 
damp interstices of the trunk and into the hollows 
under the bark. The moisture is converted into 
steam and as steam requires 1,600 times more space 
than is required when it is simply moisture, the 
tremendous heat at once turns all moisture into 
steam, and the resultant explosion is what blows 
the tree asunder. 

—West Coast Lumberman. 


A TREE THAT WEEPS 

• ; ,j - ' . ' . !'■ ■ '' ' Z'z tU; ' i J 

During the driest months of the Rhodesian year 
—August, September and October—a tree called 
by the natives Mukololo, exudes moisture in large 
drops from its topmost leaves, and gives the 
traveler who happens to be standing in the im¬ 
mediate vicinity the impression that a shower of 



110 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


rain is falling. When the natives see one of these 
trees dripping they say, “The Mukololo is weeping 
for rain.” Even during the hottest day the tree 
weeps copiously.—Strand Magazine. 

WEIGHT OF DOUGLAS FIR PILES 


Actual weights of Fir piling as shown by records 
of the North Coast Timber Company, of Tacoma: 


Length 

Top. 

Lbs. to the 

Total 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Lineal Foot. 

Weight. 

70 

10 

80 

5,600 

60 

10 

70 

4,200 

50 

10 

65 

3,250 

45 

10 

60 

2,700 

40 

10 

55 

2,200 

35 

10 

50 

1,750 

20 to 30 

10 

45 


There seems 

to be 

considerable ignorance about 


the weight of piles — with an opportunity to get 
pinched on delivered prices. 


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWOODS AND 
SOFTWOODS 

(The American Lumberman originally established 
the line of demarcation between hardwoods and 
softwoods. Its decision was approved by the 
Forest Service and has since been sustained in some 
of the lower courts, but the question has never 
been carried into a court of record. Lumber cut 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


111 


from all coniferous trees is classified as softwood, 
while all broad leafed trees are classified as hard¬ 
woods. A list of the principal native woods may 
be found in the grading rules of the National Hard¬ 
wood Manufacturers' Association of the United 
States. 


WOOD BLOCK PAVEMENT 

WOOD BLOCKS COMPARED TO OTHER PAVING 
MATERIAL 

Contrary to the general impression creosoted 
wood blocks laid under modern conditions are 
superior in wearing qualities to macadam, brick, 
asphait, granite, or sandstone. 

The following comparison of granite and wood 
pavement is taken from Forest Circular No. 141, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

“In 1901 the Metropolitan Street Railway Com¬ 
pany of New York City, decided to experiment with 
creosoted wooden blocks for paving between its 
tracks. A small area of long leaf pine was laid on 
Hudson Street, the wood being flanked at either 
end by granite the material hitherto used. At the 
point selected there is a very heavy trucking 
traffic from the North River Wharves, and the 
stresses on the pavement, where the trucks run 
with one wheel just outside the car rail, are so 
great that the granite begins to show a rut in six 
months, and is renewed almost annually. At the 
end of four years the wood, though showing a heavy 
rut, was still sound and in position and good for 
at least one more year. The granite on either side 
had been renewed three times during the 4 years.” 

Granite blocks pulverize and polish under heavy 
traffic, becoming rough like cobblestones. The re¬ 
sult is an unbearable noise, which is very obnoxi¬ 
ous to those who work in offices or other business 




112 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


people who are often unable to converse or tele¬ 
phone when heavily loaded wagons are passing. 

Creosoted wood blocks, when properly treated 
and laid by a reliable and experienced contractor, 
who is paid the price that ensures good work will 
fill all requirements expected of the best paving 
material wnen final cost and comfort is considered. 

WEARING AND SANITARY QUALITIES 

Wood block pavement is noiseless as it is laid 
with close, tight joints, and vehicles pass over its 
smooth surface without the rattle and bang as in 
the case of brick and stone, or the metalic sound 
of horses hoofs as on asphalt. It does not crumble 
away like other pavements but under heavy traffic 
Compresses and becomes more compact. No road 
surface is easier to draw a load upon, it is not 
slippery, and affords a good foothold for horses, and 
as it is laid with the end grain up it cannot splinter. 
As it is impregnated with creosote it is highly 
antiseptic, and sanitary and easily cleaned on ac¬ 
count of its smooth surface. 

EASY TO REPAIR 

When repairs are necessary or if it is taken up 
for the laying of conduits, sewers, etc., the blocks 
can easily be removed by any practical workman, 
and a large percentage of the material replaced; 
being of a uniform size, substitutions can readily 
be made. 


IDEAL PAVEMENT FOR AUTO’S 

Wood blocks make an ideal pavement for auto¬ 
mobiles of both the pleasure and commercial type, 
and the pavement of the future must comply with 
the demands, caused by the ever increasing number 
of motor cars. Asphalt, when dry, and in good con- 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


113 


dition, is suitable for this class of traffic, but when 
it is wet from rain or sprinkling, the danger of 
cars skidding is very great. 

Asphalt wears out quickly, but not uniformly, 
holes and ruts are the result, which is not only 
bad lor automobile, but any class of traffic. 

WOOD BLOCKS FOR BRIDGE FLOORS 

There are so many reasons why this character of 
pavement is most suitable for bridge work, that it 
would almost seem that it had no competitor in 
this line. 

The heaviest block manufactured, 4 inches deep, 
such as is used on work carrying most extremely 
heavy traffic, weighs only 188 pounds to the square 
yard, as against 400 pounds for brick and 900 to 
1,000 pounds for granite block, posessing less dura¬ 
bility. This fact, through decreasing as it does the 
dead weight on the structure is of sufficient im¬ 
portance to warrant the use of this class of pave¬ 
ment on all kinds of bridges. When we add to this 
the extreme durability of the pavement which gives 
it a life in the opinion of competent engineers of 
from 15 to 20 years, its noiselessness and high 
sanitary qualities and the readiness with which it 
is relaid, we have many additional reasons why 
wood block pavement is most suitable for bridge 
work. 

There are also a number of other reasons which 
influence the selection of this material for paving 
bridges. For instance, a large number of bridges 
now in existence, are paved with three or four- 
inch planking, which, under reasonably heavy traf¬ 
fic, rarely give a life exceeding twelve months and 
costs for renewal from one dollar to one dollar and 
a half per square yard. Such having already in place 
a durable plank underfloor, in many instances 
creosoted, could not be laid with stone or brick on 
such foundation even if the strength of the structure 



114 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


would enable it to carry the heavy load of these 
pavements. On the other hand the policy of re¬ 
newing plank floors every twelve months at the ex¬ 
pense above mentioned, would make the cost of 
the floor at the end of a period of only five years, 
run up to six or seven dollars or more per square 
yard. 

It needs no argument to prove that a durable 
wood pavement, laid with a five years guarantee, at 
only a small proportion of this expense would 
prove a very paying investment for municipalities. 
When we consider that the life of the pavement, 
however, is much longer than this, the saving runs 
up into hundreds of per cent. 

On new structures wood blocks are especiaRy 
well adapted to laying on a concrete foundation, 
carried by buckle plates, but if in designing a bridge 
the engineer in charge will look into the question 
of laying a thoroughly treated plank floor, with the 
wood block placed directly thereon, an enormous 
saving will at once be realized, not only by doing 
away with the concrete, but by eliminating entirely 
the buckle plate system, which together with the 
concrete is several times as costly in most instances 
as a well treated plank floor would be. 

This form of construction is being adopted on 
some of the most important and most expensive 
bridges now in course of construction throughout 
the Eastern States. 

I will not make any attempt to point out in exact 
figures the saving which results from the use of 
this material, whether it will come in the saving of 
metal in the new structures, or in the saving of 
heavy annual expense for repairs on bridges now 
paved with plank floors, or merely in the saving 
which results from laying a durable pavement in¬ 
stead of one which has only a few years of life. 

The advantages are too evident to bridge engi¬ 
neers generally to make it necessary to point out 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


115 


in detail the saving which can he realized in any 
particular case. 


HOW THE GRAIN IS LAID 

Wood blocks when used for bridge or road pave¬ 
ments, factory, warehouse or stable floors are laid 
with the grain showing the annual rings up to the 
surface. 


SIZE 

In size they are usually as follows: 

Depth Parallel to the fiber, 3 inches, 3i inches 
or 4 inches. 

Width Not less than three (3) or more than four 
(4) inches. 

Length Not less than six (6) or more than ten 
(10) inches. 


GRADE 

All blocks should be of sound timber, free from 
bark, wane, shakes, loose or rotten knots or other 
defects which would be detrimental to the life of 
the block or interfere with its laying. In depth and 
width they should not vary more than one eighth 
(|) of an inch from dimensions specified in con¬ 
tract. A small proportion of bright sap should be 
allowed as recent tests show that under equal con¬ 
ditions of moisture content the sapwood of many 
species when creosoted is as strong as the heart- 
wood. A more suitable grade could be obtained by 
excluding blocks of an exceptionally coarse grain, 
since it is the porous wood resulting from fast 
growth, rather than the presence of sapwood, which 
is detrimental to creosoted lumber. 

SEASONING 

In Europe natural seasoning is used almost en¬ 
tirely with excellent results, but in the United 




116 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


States the moisture from the sap and heartwood is 
almost universally removed by the use of steam and 
vacuum pumps, ana in its place is substituted a 
heavy creosoting oil which is forced into the blocks 
under pressure of from 125 to 150 pounds per square 
inch, the amount of oil injected varying from 12 
to 20 pounds per cubic foot (the whole treatment 
taking from eight to ten hours); the blocks are then 
removed and after drying are ready for use. 

FOUNDATION REQUIRED 

For satisfactory service wood block pavement re¬ 
quires a good substantial concrete foundation, usual¬ 
ly five to six inches thick on top of which is a 
cushion of sand or Portland cement; this evens up 
any irregularities of the concrete surface and 
produces the elastic characteristics of this pave¬ 
ment. 


ANGLE OF COURSES 

The blocks are laid in courses on this cushion at 
angles of 45, 67! or 90 degrees from the curb. 

The angle of 67! is now favored by engineers as 
the calks of horses shoes do not strike in a direct 
line with the joints, as they would where the angle 
is 90 degrees which takes the course straight across 
the street, and subjects the pavement to a wear and 
tear which may largely be avoided by laying the 
courses at an oblique angle. 

FINISHING THE PAVEMENT 

After the blocks are laid they are rolled to a true 
uniform surface with a five to eight ton tandem 
steam roller. 

The joints are then filled with sand, cement, 
mortar, or coal tar pitch. After this the top dress¬ 
ing is applied which usually consists of screened 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 117 


sharp sand or finely crushed stone. This finishes 
the pavement and it is now ready to be thrown open 
for traffic. 


KINDS OF WOOD USED 

Douglas Fir, Redwood, Southern Pine, Norway 
Pine, Tamarack, White Birch, Hemlock, Western 
Larch or any soft wood that gives satisfaction for 
constructional purposes can be used for wood block 
pavements. 

Hardwood is also used when cost and conditions 
justify using expensive lumber. 

WHAT “THE AMERICAN LUMBERMAN,” 
CHICAGO, SAYS 

It without doubt is true that the virtue of creo- 
soted wood block paving are far better understood 
and appreciated today than they have been in the 
past. That, considering all of the hearings of the 
subject, they are intrinsically the superior in a 
general way of any other material that has passed 
the debatable stage and may be taken for granted. 
In point of fact, wherever and whenever this proposi¬ 
tion is disputed, whether by a private citizen or 
public functionary, it presumably is in the interest 
of some would-be rival material, certainly not on 
the merits of the question. It may even be added 
that whenever and wherever these rival materials 
are used it is either because of the ignorance of 
authorities or on account of the biased and preferred 
claims of local factories producing them, or some 
other reason than that of clear understanding and 
honest purpose. Samples of creosoted wood pave¬ 
ment in Chicago have emerged from last winter 
with every claim as to their utility experimentally 
confirmed and every essential of superiority 
demonstrated. There accordingly is every valid 
reason why wood pavement should be preferred, 
none at all why it should not be. 



118 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


California Redwood 

Sequoia Sempervirens 

California Redwood belongs to a genus of which 
the Big Tree (Sequoia Washingtoniana) is the only 
other species now alive. 


RANGE 

The northern limits of the Redwood forests are 
along the banks of the Chetco River, Curry County, 
Oregon, where they continue southwards through 
the valleys and lowlands into Del Norte County, 
California, stretching in a belt which increases 
from 10 to 20 miles in width, till it reaches Southern 
Humboldt County. Here for a few miles it thins 
out, but becomes dense again 6 miles north of the 
Mendocino line, and after entering that county 
widens to 35 miles—its greatest width. 

The Redwood belt ends in Mendocino County, but 
isolated forests of the species are growing in shel¬ 
tered spots as far south as Salmon Creek Canyon, 
in the Santa Lucia Mountains, Monterey County, 12 
miles south of Punta Gorda, and 500 miles from the 
northern limit of the tree. 

OCCURRENCE AND SIZE 

Redwood is closely confined to humid regions 
with frequent and heavy ocean fogs, and trees grow¬ 
ing at a greater distance than 35 miles from the 
sea, or outside the influence of the fogs, are usually 
scattered and stunted. The softest and best stands 
grow in the bottoms or flats, and on the benches 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


119 


that line the larger streams. The trees of this form 
average from 190 to 280, sometimes 300, feet in 
height, and from 8 to 12 feet, or occasionally 12 to 
15 feet in diameter. Exceptionally large trees are 
325 to 350 feet high and 18 to 20 feet in diameter 
at a height of from 8 to 12 feet above the greatly 
swelled base. 

The harder timber occurs on the slopes, and trees 
of this form rarely exceed 225 feet in height, with 
a diameter of 10 feet. 

The normal mature Redwood tree has a straight 
slightly tapering bole, a clear length of more than 
100 feet, and a pyramidal crown of short horizontal 
branches which occupy a third to one-half of the 
total height of the tree. 

BARK 

The bark runs from 4 to 18 inches in thickness, is 
of a reddish gray color and fibrous in texture. 

YIELD 

The yield of Redwood on the slopes is from 10,000 
to 75,000 board feet per acre, and on the flats 100,000 
board feet would be a fair average. 

REPRODUCTION 

By far the greater part of the reproduction of 
Redwood is by sprouts, which spring from the 
stump and root collar, or as suckers from the roots. 
It is the only conifer the sprouting capacity of which 
is silviculturally important. In this respect it even 
excels most hardwoods, for its sprouts not only 
grow very rapidly, but are long lived, become very 
large and of good form, developing into very dense 
stands. Redwood is also peculiar in its ability to 
produce excellent sprouts from very old stumps. 







•i r* «-* 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


FOREST ASSOCIATES 

Of all the associates of Redwood, Douglas Fir is 
the most abundant and important, growing with it 
everywhere except on damp flats and in gulches. 
On the upper slopes Douglas Fir and Tanbark Oak 
are it's characteristic associates, and Hemlock on 
the lower. The proportion of trees in mixture with 
Redwood over the greater part of its range does not 
exceed 25 per cent. 

LOGGING 

In the lumbering of Redwood the element of 
breakage in falling is a matter of prime considera¬ 
tion. Many of the trees run over 6 feet in diameter, 
and the timber being soft the damage from falling 
is necessarily heavy. In order to avoid undue break¬ 
age a good faller will select as far as possible the 
best direction to fall his tree, and in many situa¬ 
tions a bed must be prepared for it. Under favor¬ 
able circumstances about two days are required to 
fall one of these large trees, but when it is necessary 
to prepare a bed for it, the felling might require a 
week. Whether it be Douglas Fir, Sugar Pine, or 
Redwood, it is not the number of trees a faller can 
fall, but the small per cent of breakage, and the 
position to facilitate easy yarding which count. The 
skill displayed by some expert fallers is truly mar¬ 
velous; they will take a tree eight, ten or fifteen feet 
in diameter and fall it so that it will lay just where 
they want it. By utilizing long steel wedges placed 
between two iron plates they can wedge a tree over 
with a dexterity and exactitude that is remarkable. 
The reduction in breakage when the ground is wet 
in winter is considerable. 

Timber is felled at one chopping in all seasons. 
Following the choppers are the peelers, who remove 
as much bark from the trees as is possible. It is 
absolutely essential that the bark be removed in 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 121 


order to saw the log into lumber, as the thickness 
and texture of the bark practically repudiates the 
action of the saw and would put it out of commis¬ 
sion in a very short time. One can readily imagine 
the amount of rubbish in the way, consisting of 
bark, limbs, etc., that are on the ground at this 
stage of the work; in fact, there is so much that it 
is almost impossible to get through it at all. The 
timber is now left lying in this shape until the rub¬ 
bish is dry enough to burn, when fire is started and 
the entire area is burned over, consuming all the 
refuse. 

These burns usually take place in May or June, 
and then again in the fall or as weather conditions 
will permit. The loss due to timber being burned 
is not so great as one would at first think. Even 
though it is considerable, the loggers figure that it 
is more advisable to lose this stumpage value and 
have ,clear ground to work over and reduced danger 
of fire after machinery is moved in, than it is to try 
and log in the green timber. The danger of the 
fires getting beyond control is very small. While 
fire will run through cut over lands very rapidly, it 
w r ill immediately stop on striking the standing tim¬ 
ber. After the general burn, which usually takes 
only a few hours, men are sent to put out the small 
fires that may be still burning in logs. 

The felled trees are now cut into 16, 18, 20, 24, 32 
and 40 feet, about 25 per cent are cut to 16 feet, the 
percentage of other lengths being about equal. 

Following the sawyers, comes the blocking donkey 
and swampers, constructing the skidroads over 
which the logs are hauled on to the landings, pre¬ 
paratory to being rolled or dragged on the cars by 
small donkey engines. When a trainload is made up, 
it is dispatched to the mill where the logs are un¬ 
loaded and manufactured into lumber. 

Butt logs absorb so much moisture that the first 




122 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


and second cuts usually sink in water. Left in the 
sun they require three to four years to dry. 

SAP 

Sap is always white. Some manufacturers make 
a specialty of turning out a “sappy clear” grade. 
Lumber of this description shows a streak of white 
along one edge and presents a most beautiful con¬ 
trast between the red and white in the wood. This 
“sappy clear” is highly prized for interior finish. 


COLOR AND GRAIN 

In color Redwood shades from light cherry to 
dark mahogany; its grain is straight, fine and even. 
The color and grain present in combination a hand¬ 
some appearance. It runs strong to upper grades, 
and phenomenal widths, sometimes as wide as 36 
inches, entirely free from check or other defects. 

PAINTING AND POLISHING 

Redwood is easily worked, and when properly sea¬ 
soned it neither swells, shrinks, nor warps—it “stays 
put,” and being free from pitch takes paint well 
and absorbs it readily. The dark color of the wood 
makes three coat work necessary, since the priming 
coat must be mixed extremely thin to fully satisfy 
the surface. It also takes a beautiful polish, espe¬ 
cially if given two coats of shellac and then a wax 
finish on top. 


INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR FINISH 

For doors, windows, pattern or panel work, wains¬ 
coting, ceiling, casing, shelving, moulding, and every 
description of interior or exterior finish the finest 
results can be obtained. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


123 


QUALITY 

Redwood is the most durable of the coniferious 
woods of California and possesses lasting qualities 
scarcely equalled by any other timber. Although 
very light and porous, it has antiseptic properties, 
which prevent the growth of decay producing fungi. 
So far as is known, none of the ordinary wood rotting 
fungi grow in Redwood timber. This is an exceed¬ 
ingly valuable property which should extend the use 
of this wood for all kinds of construction purposes 

DURABILITY 

For tanks, stave water pipe, poles, posts, paving 
blocks or foundations, it will last almost indefinitely 
under the trying conditions of being placed in con¬ 
tact with the ground and subject to alternate wet 
and dry conditions. 

For exterior boarding, finish and shingling, whether 
painted or not, its durability in thousands of instances 
has been demonstrated to be very great. 

PATTERN WORK 

Leading engineering and shipbuilding works in 
California have been using Redwood for pattern 
work during the past twenty-five years, as it works 
easily, and time has proved that it retains its shape 
as well as any other wood used for this purpose. 


CAR MATERIAL 

Redwood is in great demand for all kinds of finish 
for car material. Its special recommendations for 
this class of work are its durability and well known 
fire resisting qualities. Examinations of car siding 
in use for over twenty years have failed to show 
traces of dry rot or any other form of decay. 




124 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


RAILROAD TIES 

Under heavy traffic these ties last about eight 
years, the ties failing by the crushing of the rail 
down into them; but an effectual remedy against 
this now used by the Southern Pacific Railroad is 
tie plates. 

Ties laid down on sidetracks by this same rail¬ 
road have been doing service since 1855. On other 
tracks ties laid down 25 years ago are still in use. 

The Southern Pacific Company has in its own lines 
west of El Paso a little over twelve million Redwood 
cross ties. This figure represents about 70 per cent 
of the total number of ties in their own tracks. 

HOLDING OF SPIKES 

Respecting the “holding of spikes” Redwood ties 
compare favorably with all other ties made of pines, 
firs, cedars, and other kinds of timber ordinarily 
classed as soft wood. 

REDWOOD AND THE TEREDO 

The Teredo will attack and destroy Redwood piles 
or timber as quickly as any other wood. 

REDWOOD AND THE WHITE ANT 

Owing to its immunity from the ravages of the 
White Ant, this wood is almost exclusively used in 
the Philippine Islands for cabinets and boxes to hold 
important documents. 

FIRE RESISTING QUALITIES 

Redwood, owing to its freedom from pitch, will 
not ignite easily nor make a hot fire when burning, 
and is very easily extinguished. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


125 


It is an actual fact that fires have been extin¬ 
guished in Redwood buildings with comparatively 
slight damage, when the same fire would have 
made practically a total loss had the buildings been 
constructed of pine or cedar. The reason is plain. 
Redwood is not only slow in combustion, but absorbs 
moisture readily and when moistened, resists fire 
wonderfully. 

After the great San Francisco earthquake and fire 
in April, 1906, the Building Committee appointed by 
the Mayor to determine the character of the build¬ 
ings and the material to be used in constructing 
same, adopted the following resolution: 

“Resolved, That no permit will be given at present 
for the construction of any building in San Fran¬ 
cisco. But the owners of property will be allowed 
to proceed and erect upon their premises temporary 
one-story buildings, constructed of galvanized iron 
or REDWOOD, without a permit. 

“BUILDING COMMITTEE.” 

DURABILITY OF TANK STOCK 

A practical demonstration of the durability of 
Redwood and of its adaptability as tank stock is 
that the San Jose Gas Company was organized in 
1860, and built in the same year their first gas holder 
in San Jose, California, which was constructed of 
Redwood planks three inches in thickness, the 
tank having a capacity of 8,000 cubic feet. This gas 
holder was used continuously for twenty-eight 
years. In 1888 it was torn down and the Redwood 
Tank was found to be in just as good condition as 
w T hen built in 1860. Indeed, much of the material 
from the old tank was used in the construction of 
the new buildings around the Gas Plant. 

This is but one of many instances, proving that 
on account of its indestructability Redwood is the 
ideal lumber for Tank Stock. 




126 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


GRADES IN USE BY THE REDWOOD 
LUMBER MANUFACTURERS 

CLEAR REDWOOD 

Shall be good and sound, well manufactured, free 
from knots, shakes or splits, with the exception of 
season checks not to exceed 4 inches in length; will 
allow reasonable amount of birdseye and a fair 
proportion in each shipment may contain pin knots 
and small sound knots showing on one face only, 
and sap not exceeding 4 per cent, of areas of all the 
surfaces and slight variation in manufacture. 

SURFACED CLEAR 

Shall be well manufactured and worked smoothly 
to uniform thickness. 


WILL ADMIT 

Of slight roughness or variation in milling and 
defects mentioned under grade of clear. 

SAP CLEAR 

Shall conform generally to the grade of clear, ex¬ 
cept that it may contain sap in excess of 4 per cent, 
of the area of the surfaces. 

Will allow discoloration of sap. 

COMMON 

NUMBER ONE. 

Shall consist of lengths 10 feet and longer (ex¬ 
cept where otherwise specified) of sound lumber 
and free from such shakes, large or loose knots, 
or other defects that would materially impair its 
usefulness. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


127 


WILL ALLOW 

Slight variation in width and thickness. 

Sap not to exceed four per cent, of the area of 
all the surfaces. 

NUMBER TWO. 

Shall consist of lengths 10 feet and longer (ex¬ 
cept where otherwise specified) free from splits 
extending more than one-sixth of its length. Will 
allow knots (sound or unsound), sap, shakes and 
other defects which render it unfit for good, sub¬ 
stantial construction purposes, hut suitable for an 
inferior class of work. 


STRIPS 

(1x3, 4 and 6 inches.) 

Shall conform to above rules except that lengths 
shall be 10 feet and longer. 

COMMON 

BOARDS 

NUMBER ONE 

(8 inches and wider.) 

Shall he well sawn, 10 feet and longer, free from 
shakes and splits, admitting any number of sound 
knots less than 2 4 inches in diameter and one knot 
black or red 2 y 2 inches in diameter in each five 
superficial feet. 


WILL ALLOW 

Slight variation in width and thickness. 

Sap not to exceed four per cent, of the area of all 
the surfaces. 



128 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


BOARDS 

NUMBER TWO 

Will allow sap, loose and rotten knots, shakes and 
other recognized defects which render it unfit for 
good, substantial construction purposes, but suitable 
for an inferior class of work. Also splits not extend¬ 
ing over one-fourth the length of the piece. 


STANDARD GRADE, RUSTIC STOCK 
WILL ALLOW 

Three or four sound knots 1% inches in diameter. 
Sap with small knots. 

One or two sound knots between 1% to 2 inches 
in diameter. 

Poor machining, which would make it unfit for 
Clear. 


SUB FLOORING AND SHEATHING STOCK 

Will allow sap, loose and rotten knots, shakes 
and other recognized defects which render it unfit 
for good substantial construction purposes, but 
suitable for an inferior class of work. Also splits 
not extending over one-fourth the length of the 
piece. 


GRAIN OF ALL GRADES SHALL BE AS THE 
LUMBER RUNS 

REDWOOD SHINGLES 

Official grading rules for Clear and Star A Star 
shingles, adopted by the Redwood Shingle Associa¬ 
tion Eureka, California, May 1911. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


129 


No. 1 Clears. —.To be strictly clear round timber, 
virtical grain, free from sap and all other defects, 
and well manufactured; 16 inches in length, cut 5 
shingles to 1% inches in thickness at the butt when 
green; random widths, running from 3 inches to 14 
inches wide. To be carefully packed in bunches 
20 inches wide and 25 courses to the bunch; opening 
in packing not to exceed iy 2 inches to the course. 

Star A Star. —8 inches clear butt, 16 inches in 
length, running from 3 inches to 14 inches wide, 5 
shingles to 1% inches in thickness at the butt when 
green. Will admit slash grain, dark sound timber, 
hard streaks and burls; also feather-tips when 14 
inches long; thick and thin clear shingles. Other¬ 
wise must be well manufactured, and packed same 
as grade No. 1 clears. 

Some time ago the mills belonging to the As¬ 
sociation discarded their old method of packing green 
redwood shingles in the short, or California, count, 
adopting the pack used by the Northern manu¬ 
facturers. While the new pack met with great ap¬ 
proval by the users of shingles, it has been found 
that the green redwoods packed full count are ex¬ 
ceedingly heavy and hard to handle, and for this 
reason the mills will soon resume the California 
pack. However, where four bunches of the short 
count shingles were formerly sold to the thousand, 
it has been decided now to furnish five bunches, 
thus making the handling easier and at the same 
time giving the purchaser more shingles than here¬ 
tofore. 


WEIGHTS 

of Seasoned Redwood Lumber and Shingles 
Finishing 


s-2-s. Rough. 
Lbs. Lbs. 

1 inch .2,000 2,400 

1%, 1V 2 , 2 inches .2,200 2,600 

y 2 inch (finished thickness) .1,200 






130 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Thick Clear 


2y 2 and 3 inches .2,600 

4 inches .2,800 


2,900 

3,000 


Tank Stock 

Same weight as clear. 

Square and Turning Stock 

s-4-s. Rough. 

4x4 .2,300 2,800 

5x5 and 6x6 .2,500 3,000 

8x8 and 10x10 .3,000 3,500 


Porch Column—.Stock Patterns 


4x4 

inch, 

8 

feet . 

.20 

lbs. 

each 

4x4 

it 

9 

ft 

.24 

a 

a 

4x4 

a 

10 

a 

.26 

a 

a 

5x5 

a 

8 

it 

.34 

a 

a 

5x5 


9 

a 

.38 

a 

a 

5x5 

it 

10 

tt 

.44 

a 

a 

6x6 

a 

8 

a 

.50 

a 

a 

6x6 

a 

9 

it 

.56 


n 

6x6 

a 

10 

n 

.62 

a 

it 


Flooring and Square Casing 
1 inch and 1% inch.1,600 


Ceiling and Wainscoting 


% inch . 700 

1/2 “ 850 

% “ . 1,100 

% and % inch,.1,600 


* 


Rustic, Ship-Lap or Drop Siding 
1x6 inch, 8 inch and 10 inch . 


Lbs. 

1,600 


























THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


131 


Moulded Casings 

1x4 inch, 5 inch and 6 inch.1,600 

Moulded Base 

1x8 inch and 10 inch.1,600 

Beveled Siding 

V 2 x6 inch . 700 

Battens 

% inch x 3 inch Flat, S. I. S., per 100 feet, lin. .22 lbs. 

2 inch O. G.24 “ 

2V 2 inch O. G.32 “ 

Pickets 

Lbs. 

1x3 inch. 3 feet. Flat D. & H., per 1000 pieces.. .1,500 
“ “ 3 V 2 “ “ “ “ “ ...1,750 

“ “ 4 “ “ “ “ “ ...2,000 

1 V* “ x 3 feet. Square D&H. “ “ ... 750 

“ “ 3V 2 “ “ “ “ “ ... 850 

“ “ 4 “ “ “ “ “ ...1,000 

iy 2 “ 3 “ “ “ “ “ ...1,000 

“ “ 3 y 2 “ “ “ “ “ ...1,200 

“ “ 4 “ “ “ “ “ ...1,350 

Redwood Shingles 

6 inch,x 16 inch Dimension, per bunch, 147 pieces.42^ 
5 incn x 16 inch Dimension, per bunch, 200 pieces.50 
All widths Clear, 16 inch 5 to 2 inch, per M. 175 

Rough clear freshly sawn Redwood weighs 4% 
pounds to the board foot. This estimate is based 
on the actual weight of a number of cargo shipments 
from Eureka, Cal., to Australia. 
















132 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


REDWOOD SAWDUST FOR PACKING GRAPES 

By a series of experiments extending over the 
past six years, the Department of Agriculture has 
found that California grapes packed with a filler of 
Redwood sawdust keep better and longer in cold 
storage than when packed in ground cork. 

Redwood sawdust has teen found to be peculiarly 
adapted to use in fruit packing, as it is more 
nearly neutral in odor and flavor than even ground 
cork and therefore does not impart its taste or 
odor to the fruit, as would the sawdust from other 
kinds of wood. The sawdust coming from the 
band saws used in the redwood mills is carefully 
dried and then sifted to eliminate the fine dust and 
the slivers, leaving about 50 per cent, of the orig¬ 
inal sawdust suitable for use in packing. 


THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA 

, Sequoia Washingtoniana 

The Big Trees are unique in the world—the 
grandest, the largest, the oldest, the most majestical¬ 
ly graceful of % trees—and if it were not enough to 
be all this, they are among the scarcest of known 
tree species, and have the extreme scientific value 
of being the best living representatives of a former 
geological age. It is a tree which has come down 
to us tnrough the vicissitudes of many centuries 
solely because of its superb qualifiications. Its 
bark is often 2 feet thick and also noncom¬ 
bustible. The oldest specimens felled are still sound 
at the heart, and fungus is an enemy unknown to 
it. Yet with all these means of maintenance the 
Big Trees have apparently not increased their 
range since the glacial epoch. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


133 


Tiny have just managed to hold their own and 
are found onl* r in small groves scattered along the 
West Slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, from 
the miudle fork of the American River to the head 
of Deer Creek, a distance of 260 miles. 

SIZE 

Ordinary large trees are about 250 or 280 feet 
high, while exceptionally large ones are from 300 
to 330 feet, with diameters of 12 to 17 feet, or oc¬ 
casionally 2 j to 27 feet, measured 8 to 10 feet above 
the greatly swelled bases. 


THE FATHER OF THE FOREST 

Described by J. M. Hutchings in “In the Heart of 
the Sierras” 

This tree, when standing in its primitive majesty, 
is accredited with exceeding 400 feet in height, with 
a circumference at its base of 110 feet; and, al¬ 
though limbless, without bark, and even much of 
its sap (wood) decayed and gone, has still propor¬ 
tions that once could crown him “King of the 
Grove.' 

While fire has eaten out the heart of “The Father 
of the Forest” and consumed his huge limbs, as 
of many others, the following measurements re¬ 
cently taken, will prove that he was among the 
giants of those days and that “even in death still 
lives.” 

From the roots to where the center of the trunk 
can be reached on horseback, it is 90 feet. The 
distance that one can ride erect through it on 
horseback is 82 feet 6 inches. Height of entrance 
9 feet 4 inches; of arch to floor 10 feet 9 inches; 
across the roots it is 28 feet ; to where one would 
have an idea of standing to chop it down, 23 feet 




134 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


2 inchec; 10 feet from the roots its diameter is 20 
feet 8 inches; 100 feet from the roots, 12 feet 1 
inch; 150 feet from the roots, 10 feet 4 inches; ex¬ 
treme length, to where any sign of top can be 
found, 365 feet. 


LONGEVITY 

Estimates and ring counts have placed the age of 
this tree at from 4,000 to 5,000 years. It is doubtful 
whether the largest of the trees now standing are 
over 4,000 years, while very many trees from 12 
to 18 feet in diameter show ages from 1,800 to 2,500 
years, or in rare cases nearly 3,000. 


DESCRIPTION OF WOOD 

Wood of the big tree is brilliant rose purple when 
first cut, later becoming more and more dull purplish 
red brown. It is very light in weight (Redwood is 
much heavier) brittle, variable in grain from coarse 
(the growth of the first 400 or 500 years or more) 
to very fine grained (the later growth.) 

It contains, as does the bark, a large amount of 
tannin, which doubtless has much to do with its 
remarkable durability in an unprotected state. 
Prostrate trunks lie for centuries on the ground 
with no sign of decay, except in the perishable 
sapwood. 

The wood is widely used for commercial purposes 
passing in the market as “Redwood;” though 
lighter in color and weight and more brittle than 
the Coast Redwood, it is not considered less valuable 
for lumber. It is also used as a substitute for pencil 
cedar. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


133 


SUGAR PINE 

Pinus Lambertiana 

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS 

Sugar Pine is the largest and most magnificent 
of Pacific White Pines, if not of all the timber pines 
of the region, the Western Yellow Pine being its 
only rival. Its massive trunk attains a height of 
160 to 180 feet, with a diameter of 4 to 7 feet. 
Somewhat larger and taller trees are accasionally 
found. 

The trunk of matured trees is very straight, and 
tapers but little until the few large, very long, 
horizontal limbs of its wide, flat crown are reached. 
These huge branches stand out so prominently at 
right angles from the upper trunk as to distinguish 
it from associated pines. Its long cylindrical cones, 
suspended from the tips of the branches, also serve 
to distinguish the tree at a long distance. Trees 
from pole size to a foot in diameter bear distinc! 
whorls of branches at long intervals down to the 
ground. Later in life the lower whorls are shaded 
out and two or more of the upper limbs develop 
enormously in the full light. This usually takes 
place as the tree attains its main height growth. 


BARK 

Old bark is deeply furrowed longitudinally, the 
ridges being broken into long, irregular plates. It 
is from 1J to 2\ inches or more in thickness and. 
grayish brown in color. In exposed situations the 
force of high winds tears off the weathered flakes 
of bark, leaving the exposed surface a deep brown 
red color. The smooth, thin bark of the young 
trunks and branches of old trees is a dull dark gray. 



136 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


FOLIAGE 

, ■ ! ' W ^ 

The foliage is a deep blue green, with a whitish 
tinge. The leaves (needles) in bundles of 5, are 
from 2% to about 4 inches long. Those of each 
year’s growth persist two or three years. 


CONES 

The cones which are unique among all our pines 
in their huge size and form, are from 12 to 16 
inches long, and from 2\ to 3J inches in diameter; 
occasionally 18 to 23 inches in length. The tips of 
the scales are shiny and pale reddish brown. Cones 
ripen during August of the second year and shed 
their seeds by October. 

LONGEVITY 

A very long lived tree, reaching an age of from 
30u to 500, and in occasional instances, nearly 600 
years. 


RANGE 

Mountains from North Fork of Santiam River, 
Oregon, southward in Coast and Cascade ranges, 
Sierras, and Southern California cross ranges, to 
Mount San Pedro Martir, Lower California. 


WOOD 

The wood of Sugar Pine is soft, straight grained, 
and easily worked. It is very resinous, and the 
resin ducts are large and conspicuous. The heart- 
wood is light brown in color, while the sapwood is 
yellowish white. When finished the wood has a 
satiny luster that renders it excellent for interior 
finish. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


137 


The specific gravity of the dry timber is 0.3,684.. 
and rough dry timber averages about 2.5 pounds to 
the board foot. 

In contact with the soil Sugar Pine shows moder¬ 
ately durable qualities, although this migh,t prove 
less apparent in a climate not so dry as that ot 
California. In brief, Sugar Pine closely approaches 
the Eastern White Pine in its physical character¬ 
istics. 

Sugar Pine timber has an almost endless variety 
of uses. It is used extensively for doors, blinds, 
sashes, and interior finish. In pattern work Sugar 
Pine is largely replacing White Pine, as it is cheaper, 
and its softness and straight grain render it an ex¬ 
cellent substitute. Its freedom from odor or taste 
causes the wood to be much used in the manufacture 
of druggists’ drawers. 

Other common uses are for oars, mouldings, ship 
work, chain boards, bakery work, cooperage, and 
woodenware—in short, for almost any purpose for 
which White Pine is used. The poorest grades are 
used extensively for boxes, especially fruit boxes, 
and for drying-tray slats. 

The wood is still used for making shakes (a 
hewed shingle 36 inches by 6 inches), and its 
straight grain, and the ease with which it splits 
have made this in the past almost the first use for 
which the tree was sought. 

Logs too knotty to cut uppers, but otherwise 
sound and straight grained, are sometimes turned 
into bolts for matchwood. 


WESTERN YELLOW PINE 

Pinus Ponderosa 

The range of Western Yellow Pine is from South¬ 
ern British Columbia to Lower California and North- 


138 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


era Mexico, including its Rocky Mountain form (P. 
ponderosa scopularum), occurring in every State 
west of the Great Plains and one hundredth meridian. 
It attains its maximum size in the Central and North¬ 
ern Sierras of California and Oregon in mixture with 
Sugar Pine and White Fir. On the lower and drier 
foothills it occurs in pure stands. 


HEIGHT AND DIAMETER 

Trees range in height from 125 to 140 feet, with a 
practically clear trunk of from 40 to 60 feet; the 
diameter runs from 3 to 4 feet. Unusually large 
trees are from 150 to 180 feet high, while trees are 
said to have been found over 200 feet in height. 
The largest diameter recorded is about 8 feet. 


THE WOOD 

The wood is rather heavy as compared with that 
of Sugar Pine, is hard and strong, sometimes brittle, 
and very resinous. The heartwood is reddish brown, 
and the sapwood yellowish white and often very 
thick. The sapwood from certain trees, when 
finished, has a beautiful satiny luster, is light and 
easily worked, and is equal to Sugar Pine for finish¬ 
ing purposes. 

Yellow Pine has a specific gravity when dry of 
0.4715, and rough dry lumber weighs about 2.7 
pounds per board foot. It is thus considerably 
heavier than Sugar Pine and is proportionately 
stronger. 

Yellow Pine has a great variety of uses, especially 
where a strong, durable wood is desired. It is ex¬ 
tensively used for building materials, such, as scant¬ 
ling, beams, flooring, etc., railroad ties, door stock 
and matches. Small trees 6 inches, 8 inches, and 
10 inches in diameter are extensively used in some 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 139 


localities for mine props; in fact, the use of Yellow 
Pine for mining timber was one of its earliest uses. 


WESTERN WHITE PINE; SILVER PINE 

Pinus Monticola 

Western White Pine of a commercial size is found 
in Montana, Idaho, Southern British Columbia, Wash¬ 
ington, Oregon, and California. 

HEIGHT AND DIAMETER 

In height the trees range from 90 to 100 feet, and 
in diameter from 30 to 40 inches, or exceptionally 
50 inches. 


THE WOOD AND ITS USE 

The wood is very light, soft, easily worked, and 
is used for sash and door stock, boxes, shelving and 
patterns, or any purpose for which Sugar Pine or 
its Eastern relative (Pinus strobus) is used. 


IDAHO WHITE PINE FOR EXPORT 

Several of the mills in Idaho are making ship¬ 
ments of white pine to South America via the At¬ 
lantic ports. The lumber will grade No. 2, com¬ 
mon and better. The material is shipped rough 
and cut full sizes. There is a growing demand for 
Idaho white pine for export. The character of the 
lumber is in every way equal to the Michigan or 
Canadian pine, as its merits become known. Idaho 
white pine will make a name for itself in the home 
and export markets of the world. 



140 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


WESTERN RED CEDAR 

Thuja Plicata 

OCCURRENCE 

Western Red Cedar occurs in the forests of the 
Pacific Coast from Cape Mendocino, in Northern 
California, northward through Oregon, Washington, 
British Columbia and Southern Alaska to Sitka. 
It extends from the Coast eastward through the 
Coast ranges and the Cascade mountains to the 
Western Slope of the Rocky mountains in Northern 
Idaho, Montana and British Columbia. Its altitudinal 
range extends, in general, from sea level to an 
elevation of 7,000 feet. It is found usually in moist 
situations, such as the bottom land along the Coast, 
river bottom, canyons, gulches, swamps and benches, 
and cool, moist slopes. Occasionally it is found on 
moderately dry slopes and warm exposures, but in 
such places it is stunted. The tree does best on 
deep, porous soils and attains its best development 
on the rich, moist bottoms in the vicinity of the 
Coast, particularly in Washington, on Vancouver 
Island, and in British Columbia. 

As a rule, Western Red Cedar does not form pure 
stands over extensive areas, but is usually found in 
mixture. Occasionally it grows in dense groves to 
the exclusion of other species in favorable situations, 
but commonly forms an understory, sometimes with 
Western hemlock, under more light-demanding 
species. 


GROWTH AND SIZE 

The Western Red Cedar tree has a long, irregu¬ 
larly open, conical crown, which often covers two- 
thirds of the stem. The main trunk has a rapid 
taper throughout its whole length and is usually 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


141 


swell-butted and fluted at the base. On account of 
its ability to endure shade, the natural pruning of 
branches takes place slowly and this accounts for 
the knots that are found at the inner parts of the 
tree. In dense stands, however, the trees may have 
a clear length of 50 to 100 feet. 

The growth of Western Red Cedar is compara¬ 
tively slow. Up to 30 years its growtfc 4 on good 
situations is fairly rapid—nearly as fast as Western 
hemlock. After this it grows more slowly and is 
outstripped by other species. It takes 75 years to 
grow to telegraph pole size and 200 years are neces¬ 
sary to produce clear timber in any quantity. After 
250 years the tree usually begins to deteriorate. 
The crown becomes stagheaded and the trunk hol¬ 
low at the butt. In best situations on the Coast 
the tree often attains a diameter of 15 feet at the 
butt and a height of 200 feet, while at high altitudes 
it may be a mere sh*rub. A maximum diameter of 
16 feet and maximum height of 250 feet have been 
recorded. 

The following measurements taken of a Western 
Red Cedar tree which was found at an elevation of 
1,200 feet on the Sauk River, Snoqualmie National 
Forest, Washington, are of interest in showing the 
rate of growth of this species. The tree was 81 
inches or 6.8 feet in diameter at 4 y 2 feet from the 
ground and 215 feet in total height, contained 13,300 
feet board measure of timber, was not an exceptional 
tree in the stand, and was sound to tfc,e pith. It 
came into existence in 1484, before Columbus dis¬ 
covered America, and so was 426 years old when 
measured in 1909. 

Diameter Total 

Years growth dur- diameter 

Periods. in period, ing period, ft. growth, ft. 


1484-1509 25 0.4 0.4 

1509-1609 100 2.8 3.2 

1609-1709 100 1.3 4.5 





142 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


5.7 

6.8 


1709-1809 . 100 1.2 

1809-1909 . 100 1.1 


From these figures it will readily be noticed that 
the tree grew most rapidly before it was more than 
125 years old. 


BARK 

The bark of the Western Red Cedar, even on old 
trunks, is thin, usually from % to % of an inch 
thick and owing to this fact and on account of the 
inflammability of the bark the tree is in great 
danger from fire from which it rarely escapes with¬ 
out fatal injury. 


AGE 

The oldest recorded age of Western Red Cedar is 
1,137 years. This was a specimen having an aver¬ 
age diameter of 97 inches, which was found near 
Buck Creek on the Snoqualmie National Forest. 
The tree was older even than this because the wood 
in the center of the stump, a foot in diameter, was 
too rotten to show the rings. Another tree that 
was measured was 776 years old and, as a rule, 
trees 24 to 40 inches in diameter are from 200 to 
510 years old. 

Western Red Cedar is a prolific seeder. It pro¬ 
duces seed every year but particularly good seed 
years occur at somewhat irregular intervals. 


LASTING QUALITIES 

Undoubtedly the quality which speaks most in 
favor of Western Red Cedar wood is its durability. 
It is more durable under all sorts of exposure than 
most other commercial species. Large cedar logs 
have lain half buried in wet ground over 50 years 







THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


143 


with but little sign of decay in the heartwood, and 
the charred trunks of veteran cedars loom up over 
vast areas and remain sound for many decades as 
mute witnesses of the carelessness of the early 
settlers or wanton recklessness of the Indians in 
allowing fires to escape. 

Western Red Cedar is affected by comparatively 
few diseases. In old age it is attacked by a fungus 
that causes heart-rot and which is responsible for 
the hollow butts. 


THE WOOD 

The wood of the Western Red Cedar is light, soft, 
brittle, straight and fine grained and free from resin. 
It splits easily, does not warp, shrink or check and 
takes a fine polish. Because of its light weight 
(Western Red Cedar wood has a specific gravity 
of 0.38 while the specific gravity of Douglas Fir is 
0.52.) It is used for shingles, bevel and drop sid¬ 
ing, wainscoting, ceiling, window and door casings, 
sasttes, doors, interior finish, pickets, turned articles, 
blocks for foundations, telephone and telegraph 
poles, posts, ties, stulls and cooperage. 

The foregoing information is from literature sup¬ 
plied by The U. S. Forest Service. 


VARIATION IN THE TIMBER GROWTH 

With the climatic conditions over an extensive 
area along the Coast practically uniform, it is strange 
to notice the variation in the timber growth. In 
British Columbia cedar develops with fewer hollow 
butts than in Washington, while Oregon has but 
little cedar. The trunks of the cedars in British 
Columbia are shorter. On some of the islands where 
the heavy winds have full sweep, but few limbs are 
found on the side opposing the heavy prevailing- 
winds. 



144 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SIDING 

Western Red Cedar is one of the very best adapted 
woods for siding to be found in the country. It is 
practically impervious to decay; does not shrink 
or swell; takes and bolds paint readily; bolds the 
nails well, and is, taken altogether, a most satis¬ 
factory siding material. 

LARGEST TREE ON THE CONTINENT 

There is a cedar tree in Snohomish county which 
is declared to be the largest tree on the continent, 
exceeding in girth by three inches the largest of 
the trees of the famous redwood forest of California. 
This tree measures 104 feet 4 inches in circum¬ 
ference and it is more than 150 feet to the first 
limb, which is five feet in diameter. 

MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS 

In certain regions, Western Red Cedar can he 
utilized, where it is impossible to put other species 
on the market. It can be driven in the form of 
shingle bolts down the smaller streams and rivers 
which are not drivable for logs. This method makes 
possible its removal from very remote localities 
where the cost of transporting logs of other species 
by logging railroads would be prohibitive. Another 
advantage of Western Red Cedar is that it can 
easily be converted into shingles and for this opera¬ 
tion the capital required in milling is smaller than 
that required in other branches of wood manufactur¬ 
ing. Thus the smaller investor can handle the busi¬ 
ness without a great outlay of capital. 

In order to utilize Western Red Cedar most 
economically where clear lumber for siding or other 
purposes is desired, combination mills are necessary. 
If the logs are sawn up into lumber only, too much 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


145 


inferior lumber is obtained on account of numerous 
knots. Only the better trees, and of these the butt 
logs, contain much clear lumber. The clear lumber 
must “be skimmed off” from the outside of these 
logs. The rest of the log is passed on to the shingle 
mill and converted into shingles. All slabs defec¬ 
tive parts, and culls are also manufactured into 
shingles, and the stems of Western Red Cedar are 
fully utilized. 


ADVANTAGE OF THE CEDAR SHINGLE 

The great advantage of the cedar shingle is found 
in its ability to stand exposure to the elements for 
an indefinite period and without damage to its ef¬ 
fectiveness. Old buildings torn down after decades 
of use, will show the shingles, if made from Western 
Red Cedar, still firm and impervious to rain. 


SPECIFICATIONS ADOPTED BY IDAHO CEDAR- 
MAN’S ASSOCIATION 

January 16, 1911 
SPECIFICATIONS 

Standard Telephone, Telegraph and Electric Light 
Poles. Sizes 4-inch 20 feet and upwards. 

All poles must be cut from live, growing cedar 
timoer, peeled, knots trimmed close, butts and tops 
sawed square, tops must be sound and must meas¬ 
ure as follows in circumference: 

POLES 

4- inch top 12-inch circumference. 

5- inch top 15-inch circumference. 

6- inch top 18 y 2 inch circumference. 

7- inch top 22-inch circumference. 

8- inch top 25-inch circumference. 



146 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


9-inch top 28-inch circumference. 

10-inch top 31-inch circumference. 

CROOK 

No pole shall have more than one crook and this 
shall be one way only, the sweep not to exceed one 
inch to every six feet in length. Same to he deter¬ 
mined in the following manner: Measurement for 
sweep shall be taken as follows: That part of the 
pole when in the ground (six feet) not being taken 
into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch a 
tape line on the side of the pole where the sweep 
is greatest, from a point six feet from butt to the 
upper surface at top, and having so done measure 
widest point from tape to surface of pole and if, 
for illustration, upon a 30-foot pole said widest point 
does not exceed five inches said pole comes within 
the meaning of these specifications. 

BUTT ROT 

Butt rot in center, including small ring rot, shall 
not exceed 10 per cent, of the area of the butt. Butt 
rot of a character which impairs the strength of the 
pole above ground is a defect. 

KNOTS 

Large knots, if sound and trimmed smooth, are 
not a defect. 

DEAD OR DRY STREAKS 

A perfectly sound, dead or dry streak shall not be 
considered a defect when it does not materially 
impair the strength of the pole. 

Note.—Western Cedar will taper about one inch 
to eight feet in length. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


147 


PORT ORFORD CEDAR; LAWSON CYPRESS 

Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana 

On account of its great beauty as an ornamental 
evergreen, Lawson Cypress, the Port Orford Cedar 
of lumbermen, is widely known in this country and 
abroad. It is little known, however, as a forest tree. 
It is the largest of its genus and also the largest 
representative of its tribe (Cupressineoe) in North 
America. 


HEIGHT AND DIAMETER 

Height, from 125 to 180 feet, with a diameter of 
from 3^ to 6 feet. Trees 8 or more feet in diameter, 
and nearly 200 feet high sometimes occur, but are 
now rare. 


DISTINGUISHING FEATURES 

In youth it is readily distinguished by its profusion 
of short, feathery, weeping branchlets of deep yel¬ 
low-green, and its dense sharply defined, pyramidal 
crown, which extends nearly to the ground, and in 
the open is retained for many years. At first the 
branches all trend upward, but gradually, as the 
tree grows older, they become horizontal and droop¬ 
ing especially at the bottom of the crown. The 
tips of the leading branchlets and the fringy side 
sprays hang down conspicuously, on old trees the 
leaf-covered twigs being shorter and less graceful 
than on young trees. 

Forest grown trees carry a short but otherwise 
similar crown and have trunks clear of branches for 
80 to 100 feet or more. Like those of the Yellow 
Cypress, trunks often have one or two slight bends 
and a broad, rapidly contracted base, which is 




148 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


somewhat flattened, hollowed or slightly fluted in 
places. The trunk form, however, is round and 
full above. 


BARK 

The bark is conspicuously thick—6 to 8 inches or 
more at the base of old trunks—but thinner higher 
up. Deep, narrow seams divide an apparently separ¬ 
ate outer layer of bark into narrow, rather loose 
ridges, which separate into long strips, showing a 
dark red-brown underlayer of bark, which, is strong 
and little broken. The color of the outer bark is 
similar, but subdued by weathering. 

FOLIAGE AND CONES 

The minute scale like leaves are soft to the touch, 
and closely pressed to the twigs, except on young- 
trees and on main branchlets. 

The small berry like cones mature in one season 
in the latter part of September or early in October, 
and are clear dark russet-brown when they open. 

REPRODUCTION 

Very prolific annual seeder, beginning when about 
12 years old and continuing to an advanced age. 
Seed generally has a fairly high rate of germination, 
but often a low one ; vitally transient. Germinates 
abundantly in shaded, moderately open places, also, 
in logged and burned over areas. 

RANGE 

Coast of Southwestern Oregon from Coos Bay 
southward, within fog belt, to Mad River (near 
Humboldt Bay), Humboldt County, Cal., extend¬ 
ing from within a few miles of sea to from 10 to 






THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


149 


40 miles inland and reaching 5,000 feet elevation on 
seaward slopes of Coast range. Noted at Cresent 
City, Cal., and in Humboldt county on West Side 
of Hoopa Valley, on Wilson Creek slope; on trail 
between Hoopa Valley and Areata, about 4 miles 
west of Hoopa, at 1,800 feet; farther west, in damp 
gulch between Redwood Creek and Blue Lake. A 
few outlying stations occur further inland, as in 
Siskiyous, near Waldo, Josephine county, and at a 
few other places in Oregon; also at Western base 
of Mount Shasta, near Sisson, Cal., on headwaters of 
Sacramento River, at about 3,500 feet; and in 
Trinity Mountains at head of Hall’s gulch (tributary 
East Fork Trinity River T 37 N., R. 6 W.), around 
Trinity center at 3,300 to 4,300 feet, and probably 
elsewhere. 


OCCURRENCE 

Most abundant and largest (north of Rogue River) 
on West Slope of Coast Range foothills from 3 to 
15 miles from the ocean. Not very particular in 
choice of locality; on Coast sand dunes on high, dry, 
sandy ridges and slopes of Coast hills, and on banks 
of streams and lakes. In mountains best in narrow, 
damp, sunny ravines. Not exacting in soil require¬ 
ments. In Oregon it thrives on Sandy soil, growing 
even in dry soils of high ridges, while in the north 
west Coast region of California it grows well in 
swampy places near the sea. In cultivation it does 
well in almost any porous soil, except cold peat. 

Near Port Orford (Southwestern Oregon) it is 
abundant in mixture with Western Red Cedar, Sitka 
spruce, White Fir, Western Hemlock and Douglas 
Fir. 

Occasionally in Sugar and Western Yellow Pine 
forests on rather dry, sunny slopes. 

The total stand of this timber is estimated at 
almost two billion feet. 





150 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


THE WOOD 

Port Orford Cedar, also known as White Cedar, 
is very fine grained, and in color is creamy white, 
with the slightest tinge of red. The wood has a 
pleasant rose aromatic odor, which is strong when 
freshly sawn, but not so pronounced after seasoning. 
It is a rather hard and firm wood, works as easily 
as the choicest pine, and is very durable without 
protection under all sorts of exposure. Experiments 
have proven that it can be stained to imitate ma¬ 
hogany more closely than any other wood. 

It is susceptible to a high polish, and posesses 
all the features necessary to class it as an excellent 
material for the better class of interior finish. It 
is also considered very desirable for boat building, 
shelving, chests and wardrobes where expensive 
furs and valuable clothes are kept, as its odor is 
an absolute preventative from the attacks of moths. 
Its straight grain and the facility with which it is 
worked gives this wood a high place among those 
used for match and pattern making. 


GRADES 

The grades consist of No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3 clear 
Factory stock, then No. 3 Common. The latter is 
manufactured into sizes of 3x8 and wider, and 4x8 
and wider, and is usually used for wharf and ware¬ 
house floors. 


KNOTS 

Nearly all the knots are rotten, in fact in many 
cases nothing remains but the hole where the knot 
formerly existed. In spite of this defect, however, 
the surrounding wood does not decay but is 
practically everlasting. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


151 


FACTORY LUMBER 

A large percentage of No. 3 Common would cut 
up into the best grade of factory lumber, as the 
knots usually of standard size are wide apart, say 
at intervals of 4 to 10 feet, and outside of this de¬ 
fect the lumber is clear without blemish. 


SHIPPING PORTS 

The shipping ports are Coos Bay, and Coquillo 
River, Oregon, consignments destined for the United 
Kingdom or other Foreign Ports, would probably be 
reshipped at San Francisco. 

As this wood splits easily, great care should be 
exercised in the handling to avoid breakages. 


ALASKA CEDAR; YELLOW CEDAR 

Chamaecyparis Nootl^atensis 

This wood is also known as Sitka Cypress, Yellow 
Cypress and Alaska Cypress. Its range is the Coast 
and Islands of southeastern Alaska and British 
Columbia, and southward on the Coast and in Cas¬ 
cades through Washington and Northern Oregon. 

HEIGHT AND DIAMETER 

Trees run from 75 to 80 feet high (sometimes 90 
to 100 feet) and from 2 to 3 feet or not uncommonly 
4 or 5 feet in diameter. 

THE WOOD AND ITS USE 

When freshly sawn the wood is of a clear sulphur- 
yellow color darkening to a light orange tint when 




152 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


exposed to the weather. It is exceedingly fine 
grained; though light, it is comparatively heavy for 
its class, being from 10 to 12 pounds heavier per 
cubic foot tfcan Western Red Cedar, it is elastic 
but somewhat brittle, and firm, splits and works 
very easily. It is very strongly scented and re¬ 
markably durable when exposed to weather, earth, 
or water. Logs of Yellow Cedar have lain on moist 
ground for half a century with little decay. The 
firm structure of the wood, together with the ease 
with which it is worked and the attractive finish it 
takes, render it especially useful for interior finish, 
and cabinet work as well as for special uses requir¬ 
ing soft, light, durable wood. It could also be used 
for pencil cedar if the prejudice against the dif¬ 
ference in color and odor could be overcome. 

The comparatively limited supply of this wood is 
likely always to confine its usefulness to a few 
special, but, nevertheless, important purposes. 


WESTERN OR SITKA SPRUCE 

Picca Sitchensis 

In comparison with other soft woods in the United 
States that are used for lumber, Western Spruce 
also known as Sitka and Pacific Spruce, is par¬ 
ticularly clean and white, of a soft texture with 
tough fiber and has a beautiful sheen or glow peculiar 
to itself. 


WESTERN AND EASTERN SPRUCE COMPARED 

Comparing Western Spruce with the Spruce of 
th,e Eastern States, it bears the same relation that 
the large tree does to the sapling. The Western 
Spruce grows very large, the average size of the 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


153 


logs being nearly four feet in diameter, while the 
average diameter of the Eastern Spruce is less than 
one foot. 

The small tree is fine grained and contains many 
small red knots, while the larger tree is coarser in 
grain with a much larger percentage of clear, and 
what knots occur in the body of the tree are usually 
black and loose. 


RANGE 

Western Spruce is found mixed with other woods 
in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, mostly 
west of the Cascade mountains and the amount is 
variously estimated at from thirty billion to one 
hundred billion feet. From this, it will be seen, 
that there will be a supply for many years to come. 

USE FOR FINISH 

The uses for which Spruce is best adapted are 
finish, siding, doors, sash, factory work, musical 
instruments and boxes, especially those for con¬ 
taining pure food products. 

Because Spruce is the best substitute for White 
Pine, now becoming scarce, it is used by sash and 
door factories in the manufacture of doors, windows, 
mouldings, frames, etc., and is found to be a very 
satisfactory wood for these purposes. 

BOXES FOR FOOD PRODUCTS 

Many of the manufacturers of spruce on the Pa¬ 
cific Coast have box factories and the lower grades 
are manufactured into box shooks for all purposes. 
The spruce lumber, however, should be reserved 
for use in those boxes which are to contain food 
products, such as crackers, corn starch, butter, dried 
fruits, etc., because it so clean, sweet and odorless 



154 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


that it does not taint these substances. It is also 
largely used for egg cases to be placed in cold 
storage, because eggs will taste if packed in boxes 
made from pine or wood containing pitch,. Spruce 
is used for lining refrigerators for the same reason. 

SECRET OF SURFACING 

There has been a great deal of complaint on the 
part of those who have bought and tried to work 
spruce because it works so hard. The factory man 
who was used to white pine with its short and 
brittle grain, has been disappointed because his 
methods did not bring the same results with, spruce. 
There is but one secret about spruce and the man 
who knows this can get fiirst class results without 
special effort. The secret is, to have the wood 
thoroughly dry and use sharp knives. The fiber 
of spruce, being long and tough when wet, cuts 
very hard, but when dry there is no difficulty if the 
knives are sharp. 


QUALITY 

Spruce grades are always good because of the 
character of the wood. The principal defect is knots 
and as these are largely black and loose, the wood 
must be cut up into practically clear lumber. After 
this is done, the grade is likely to be satisfactory to 
any buyer. 

Spruce has just the right texture to receive and 
hold paint nicely and is the best known wood for 
making sign boards, first, because any size and 
length can be secured, and second, because two 
coats of paint on spruce will give as good a fiinish. 
as three coats on almost any other soft wood. 

The spruce trees of the Pacific Coast are so large 
that the percentage of sap is small, indeed. For 
this reason spruce does not stain or discolor easily. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


155 


even if the lumber is placed where it will become 
mouldy, the blue mould will dress off with a very 
light cut. 

The above statement regarding the spruce of the 
Pacific Coast will enable the buyer to judge whether 
it is adapted to his purpose. 

The foregoing article ably describing Western 
Spruce was written by E. O. McGlauflin, a well 
known expert on Pacific Coast Lumber and re¬ 
produced in this book through the courtesy of The 
West Coast Lumberman. 


SPRUCE FOR AEROPLANES 

Western Spruce is considered an ideal wood for 
the construction of aeroplanes, and is now extensive¬ 
ly used for that purpose. 



HOW TO GRIND KNIVES FOR DRESSING SPRUCE 

The cut shows the back bevel on the planer knife 
successfully used by plaining mill experts for sur¬ 
facing “Green” or “Dry” Spruce. When the knife 
is ground with the bevel as illustrated, it makes a 
square cut and leaves a smooth surface, as it breaks 
off the chip instead of tearing it away from the 
board. 


WESTERN HEMLOCK 

Tsuga Helerapbjlla 

Western Hemlock is a large forest tree. Its 
tall, clean, smooth looking trunks, fine foliage, and 





156 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


drooping branchlets distinguish it readily from its 
associates. The trunks taper very gradually. 
Forest grown trees have small narrowly pyramidal 
crowns of slender branches, and are from 125 to 
160 feet high, and from 2 to 5 feet in diameter. 
Occasionally much larger trees are found. 


BARK 

The bark of larger branches and young trees is 
thin, finely scaly, and russet-brown, while that of 
old trunks is about 1% to iy 2 inches thick, hard, 
and deeply furrowed; the ridges are wide, flat, and 
irregularly connected with one another by narrower 
cross ridges. it is dark russet-brown, tinged with 
red. 


FOLIAGE 

The foliage is deep, glossy and yellowish green 
and clothes the branchlets thickly; but the small 
size of the leaves gives it a thin appearance. The 
leaves appear to grow mainly from two opposite 
sides of the branchlets—a sort of cone like arrange¬ 
ment. They are flat, grooved above, have a rounded 
end, and a distinct thread-like stem, and are about 
one-fourth to seven-eighths of an inch long. 

The leaf bearing branchlets, especially those of 
the season’s growth are more or less minutely 
hairy. 


CONES 

The small few scaled cones nod from the tips 
of branchlets, maturing from the middle to the 
end of August. They open rapidly afterwards and 
usually shed their small, winged seeds during 
September. By spring most of the cones have 
fallen from the trees. The cones are about three- 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


157 


fourths of an inch to sometimes nearly 114 inches 
long and when open are reddish clay-brown. Cone 
scales are peculiar in being sharply narrowed from 
about their middle, are faintly downy on their outer 
surfaces. 


WOOD 

Wood, fiine grained, pale yellowish brown, with 
the slightest tinge of red, it is ratlter light, soft 
(works like soft pine) and very unlike the slivery 
wood of its Eastern relative, which it otherwise 
resembles. The unfounded prejudice against West¬ 
ern Hemlock wood is exceedingly unfortunate, for 
in its upper grades it is useful for many of the 
better commercial purposes, while its bark yields 
a much higher percentage of tannin than does that 
of the Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), so 
extensively used for tannin. 

The true value of Western Hemlock timber has 
not been appreciated on account of its name, since it 
has been confused with the Eastern Hemlock, which 
produces wood of inferior quality. —“Forest Trees of 
the Pacific Coast,” by George B. Sudworth. 

RANGE 

Pacific Coast region from Alaska, southward to 
Northern California; inland to Southern British 
Columbia, Northern Idaho, and Montana, and into 
the Cascades in Oregon and Washington. 

The stand in Clallam and Jefferson counties, Wash¬ 
ington, next to the ocean, is nearly all Hemlock 
and for miles one will not see a Douglas Fir tree, and 
only occasionally a Spruce or Cedar tree. The same 
is true of Willapa Bay. It is estimated that there 
are about seven or eight billion feet of Hemlock 
now standing in the State of Washington and be¬ 
tween four and five billion feet in the State of 
Oregon. 



158 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


INTERIOR FINISH 

Unlike its Eastern relative, Western Hemlock con¬ 
tains a good proportion of uppers. The clear grades 
are specially suitable for inside finish, are not easily 
scratched, and when dressed have a smooth surface 
’with a satin sheen, susceptible of a high polish. 
It will also take enamel finish to perfection, and is 
well adapted to use as core stock for veneered pro¬ 
ducts. If sawn slash the figure of the grain presents 
a beautiful effect. The wood is non-resinous and 
odorless (when dry.) 

FLOORING 

Vertical Grain Hemlock makes an exceptionally 
satisfactory flooring. It hardens with age and as a 
proof of its lasting and wearing qualities the Hem¬ 
lock floor laid in the Court House of Clatsop County, 
Oregon, was according to Judge Frenchard in good 
condition when the building was torn down, after 
50 years continual service. 

In the Judge’s old home, built in 1860, the Hem¬ 
lock flooring is in excellent condition and so hard 
that it is now difficult to even drive a tack into it. 


BEVEL SIDING 

Millions of feet of Clear Western Hemlock are 
annually manufactured into Bevel Siding. It is a 
great competitor of Spruce, which, it closely resem¬ 
bles, and is often bought or sold as such, either 
through ignorance or misrepresentation. 

USE FOR LIGHT CONSTRUCTION 

For sheathing, shiplap, roof or tarn boards West 
ern Hemlock is an ideal wood; it is noted for holding 
nails well, is free from pitch or gum, and the knots 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


159 


in merchantable grades are firm and small. For 
sanitary reasons it should have a decided preference 
in the construction of dwelling houses, as it is prac¬ 
tically proof against insects, vermin or white ants, 
and is shunned by rats and mice. 


MINING TIMBERS 

Entire or part cargoes of Western Hemlock tim¬ 
bers, ties and planks are regularly shipped from the 
States of Washington and Oregon into California 
or Mexico, where the lumber is generally used for 
mining purposes. 


PULP WOOD 

Many millions of feet of Hemlock are yearly con¬ 
verted intc pulp for the making of paper. Practi¬ 
cally all of the Hemlock on the Columbia River is 
used for this purpose by the mills of Oregon City 
and La Camas. 

BOXES AND PACKING CASES 

Boxes or Packing Cases manufactured out of Hem¬ 
lock compare very favorably with other woods used 
for this purpose. A great number of Hemlock oil 
cases are shipped to the Orient. One firm in Wash 
ington is exporting 50,000 cases per month to Hong 
Kong and Singapore. 


WEIGHT 

Though Hemlock is very heavy when green, after 
seasoning it will weigh from 300 to 500 pounds per 
1,000 board feet less than Douglas Fir. When pay¬ 
ing from 40 to 50 cents per hundred pounds for 
freight by rail, it means an additional profit that a 
business man should not lose sight of in cases where 
the competitive price of other woods is close. 





3 60 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


GRADING 

The same grading rules that apply to Douglas Fir 
are generally used for Hemlock. 

KILN DRYING 

The regular and even structure of the wood and 
total absence of pitch renders it capable of rapid 
kiln drying at high temperature without injury. 


AVERAGE RESULTS OF TESTS 

The following results of mechanical tests were 
made upon “8x16” stringers and other lumber gener¬ 
ally used in railroad work, for bridge, trestle and 
car construction. 

In point of strength, as shown by the tests, West¬ 
ern Hemlock is suitable for all except the heaviest 
structures. 

The average of the results of bending tests on all 
grades of partially air-dried beams shows a modulus 
of rupture of 5,992 pounds per square inch, a modulus 
of elasticity of 1,351,000 pounds per square inch, 
and an oven-dry weight per cubic foot of 26 pounds. 
The rate of growth of these sticks was 12.7 rings 
per inch. 

For all grades of green beams, the modulus of 
rupture is 5,783 pounds per square inch, the modulus 
of elasticity 1,475,000 pounds per square inch, and 
the oven-dry weight 28.5 pounds per cubic foot. The 
moisture in the green beams was 36.2 per cent, 
against 27.8 per cent for the partially air-dried 
beams. 

The ratio of the bending strength of the large 
green sticks to the small sticks cut from them is 
0.70 for fiber stress at elastic limit, 0.70 for modulus 
of rupture, and 0.97 for modulus of elasticity. 




STRENGTH OF WESTERN HEMLOCK 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 161 


a> 

o 

• r-H 
> 

<D 

U2 


in 

<d 

u 

o 

fa 


m 


a> 

,cj 


in 

CD 

• H 

5-. 

O 

+-> 

c<3 

u 

o 

,0 

Ci 


CD 

.a 


<d 

ccJ 

a 


a 

o 

fa 


J-l 

CD 

& 


O 


bfi 

fl 

CD 

u, 


bfi 

fl 

•rH 

a 

CD 

^2 

<D 

biD 

ccS 

f-. 

CD 

a 

CD 

& 


>> 

u 

d 

a 

a 

$ 

m 


htpipopp 

fo mjnpof y 


5 


a =o 

"l hj 

^ *2 


in 

CO 


»o 

t- 


punjdng 
fo mpipojv 

u . 

S S 

Cl CO 

• os oo 

as t- 

^ ^ to in 

Weight per 
Cubic Foot, 

hup U9U0 

Lbs. 

26.0 

28.5 

P9JS9J, 

8V 

Lbs. 

33.2 

38.8 

‘lioo udd 
dunfsjojp 

27.8 

36.2 

*1**1 fo ‘OF 

64 

30 


'CS 

e 

Cb 


o' ^ 

<=> 

e ~- 
o sb 
o 


*h 

•r-H 

ctf 

K^2 

.a « 

£ U CD 
J-l <D 

ccS u 

O-i O 


in 

CD 

Tb 

ccS 

u 

bfl 


o 

'd 

























162 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


The crushing strength of partially air-dry Western 
Hemlock is 3,705 pounds per square inch. 

The compressive strength at elastic limit at right 
angles to grain is 477 pounds per square inch. 

The shearing strength, parallel to grain, for small 
sticks is 746 pounds per square inch. 

Out of 64 tests on Western Hemlock, 12 failed in 
longitudinal shear. The shearing stress in the beams 
failing in longitudinal shear was 273 pounds per 
square inch. 


VALUE OF BARK FOR TANNIC ACID 

Although thinner than that of the Eastern species, 
the bark of the Western Hemlock is exceedingly 
rich in tannic acid. 

In Oregon, where Hemlock is logged for paper 
pulp, the bark is utilized by local tanneries and 
brings from $8 to $12 a cord. The claim is made 
that it produces a lighter leather than Eastern bark. 

The bark of the Eastern tree averages about 10 
per cent, tannin and that of the Western tree 16 per 
cent, of a superior quality. 

In Hide and Leather of June 24, 1893, appear the 
results of tests made by H. G. Tabor, manager of 
The American Extract Works of Port Alleghany, 
Pa., which are as follows: 

Comparative analysis of Hemlock Bark from Wash¬ 
ington, Pennsylvania, and Quebec: 

Washington. Pennsylvania. Quebec. 

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 


Tannic Acid . 17.04 13.28 10.16 

Non-tannin . 6.40 7.52 4.56 

Reds . 1.56 3.48 1.92 

Wood Fibers . 75.00 75.72 83.36 








THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


163 


Allowing 2,240 pounds to the cord, and assuming 
an average percentage of ten for the Eastern and 
sixteen for the Western hark, the quantity of tannin 
in each would be as follows: 

Yield of Tannin per Cord of Western and 
Eastern Bark: 

Pounds. 


Western Bark .358.4 

Eastern .224.0 

Difference .134.4 


Although the cord is used as a standard of meas¬ 
ure for bark, it is usually sold by weight in order to 
avoid variation due to loose piling. 

Throughout the East 2,240 pounds are usually 
called a cord, although in some places 2,000 pounds 
are accepted. 

A long cord of 2,240 pounds equals about 77 cubic 
feet, a short cord of 2,000 pounds equals about 66V 2 
cubic feet. 

It is highly important to keep Hemlock bark in¬ 
tended for tanning purposes well protected from 
the rain, for it leaches out easily and is soon ruined. 
For the same reason bark from logs wfcjch have 
been towed or driven is of little value. 

Salt water ruins it entirely. 

As fresh bark does not yield the acid readily, after 
peeling, it is cured in the sun for a period of from 
five to ten days, then carefully piled exterior side 
uppermost. To complete part of the seasoning pro¬ 
cess, which, unless the season is wet, or the bark 
is piled in a shady place, requires but two or three 
months. It is then sent to the works, where it is 
stored until fully cured, usually between one and 
two years. 









164 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


MAKING THE EXTRACT 

The process of making the extract is as follows - . 
Tne barK is ground and placed in wooden vats, w r h,ere 
it is steeped until the acids are removed. The result¬ 
ing liquor is then evaporated in a vacuum at a tern 
perature of about 180 degrees P. until it is reduced 
to a heavy dark fluid weighing about 10 pounds to 
the gallon, and containing nearly all the tanning 
properties of the bark. 

Assuming the unsteeped bark to have 10 per cent 
of tannic acid, 100 pounds of it would produce about 
40 gallons of 20 degrees liquor, which, upon analysis, 
would show aoout 2 y 2 per cent of tannin. The ex¬ 
tract is usually shipped in 500-pound barrels and 
brings about 2 y 2 cents a pound. 

The production of ground tan bark for local use 
is a simple process, but the successful manufacture 
of extract requires expensive machinery, tfc,e cost of 
a ten barrel plant being from $15,000 to $20,000. 

SAMPLES TO FOREIGN BUYERS 

Manufacturers who wish to expand the market for 
Western Hemlock should send samples of this wood 
to Foreign countries. Clear boards, surfaced four 
sides, and merchantable boards surfaced one side, 
would give a good idea of the quality and appear¬ 
ance of this lumber, which can be used for the vari¬ 
ous purposes described in the foregoing article, with 
satisfactory results in any part of the world. 


WESTERN LARCH 

Larix Occidentalis 

Western Larch is the largest and most massive 
of North American Larches. Its straight trunks 
grow ordinarily to a height of from 100 to 180 feet, 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


165 


and to a diameter of 3 or 4 feet. Not infrequently 
trees reach a height of over 200 feet and a diameter 
of from 5 to 8 feet. The tapering trunks are clear 
of branches for from 60 to 100 feet or more. 


BARK AND FOLIAGE 

Middle aged and old trunks have reddish cinna¬ 
mon-brown bark, extremely thick (3 to 6 inches), 
deeply furrowed near the base of the tree, where 
the ridges are strikingly massive;—20 or more feet 
above, it is much thinner and less deeply furrowed. 
Tfc ( e exceedingly thick bark of old and of half grown 
trees is a most important protection against fire. 
The bark of young trees and of the branches is thin, 
scaly, and dark or grayish brown. 

The color of the foliage is a pale yellowish green, 
becoming a bright lemon yellow in the late fall. 

RANGE AND OCCURRENCE 

The distribution of Western Larch is limited to 
a relatively small portion of the Northwestern United 
States and Southwestern British Columbia. It in¬ 
habits mountain valleys and slopes at elevations of 
2,000 to 7,000 feet in Northwestern Montana, North¬ 
ern Idaho and Washington, and extends southward 
along the Cascades—mainly along the eastern slope 
—and the Blue Mountains into Northern Oregon. It 
attains its best development and greatest commercial 
importance in Northern Idaho and in the Flathead 
Valley of Montana, where it sometimes forms pure, 
open forests of limited extent in valleys and on 
mountain slopes at moderate altitudes. 


DESCRIPTION OF WOOD 

The wood is heavy, clear reddish brown, and runs 
from medium coarse to fine in grain. It is very dur- 





168 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Though uncommon on the eastern slope of the 
Cascade Range, it is very abundant on the Western 
slope in the vicinity of the Columbia River in 
Oregon. 

In Multnomah County, Oregon, near Bridal Veil, 
there are about six to eight thousand acres which 
are estimated to contain over 150 million board feet 
of Noble Fir, which is standing in a body of 15,000 
acres, the balance of the stand being principally old 
growth Douglas Fir. 

Noble Fir is abundant on Mount Rainier at eleva¬ 
tions of 4,000 to 5,000 feet, and noted near Ashford 
at 3,500 feet. 


THE CORRECT NAME 

As usual Noble Fir, botanically known as Abies 
Nobilis, is like a number of the leading commercial 
woods of the Pacific Coast, known by other names 
such as “Red Fir” and “Larch.” Why either, es¬ 
pecially “Larch,” should be used it is difficult to 
understand. There is little, except possibly the 
thin foliage of this fir, to suggest likeness to any 
of the tree Larches or Tamaracks and also little 
about the tree to deserve the name “Red Fir.” It 
is said that “Larch” first applied in Oregon some 
twenty-five years ago was used in order to avoid 
the prejudice against its admirable timber, which 
would have been aroused if the lumber had been 
offered as “Fir.” 

Perpetuation of such a misnomer is confusing, 
even for so good a reason. It prevents lay people 
from acquiring a useful and a correct knowledge of 
the natural relationships of these important forest 
trees. It is hoped therefore that “Larch” will be 
replaced by the correct name “Noble Fir,” which 
serves to popularize the tree’s technical name. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


169 


COLOR AND GRAIN 

The wood is of a creamy white color, irregularly 
marked with reddish brown areas, which adds much 
to its beauty. It is moderately hard, strong, firm, 
medium close grain, and compact. It is free from 
pitch, is of soft texture, but hard fiber and when 
dressed shows a peculiar satin sheen. In quality 
it is entirely different from and superior to any of 
the light, very soft fir woods. When seasoned this 
wood so closely resembles Western Hemlock that 
it is almost impossible to distinguish between the 
two when thoroughly dry. 

FINISH 

It is one of the best woods known for interior or 
exterior finish, siding, mouldings, sash and doors, 
and factory work for it retains its shape and “holds 
its place” well. 

FLOORING 

On account of the hard fiber, when sawn vertical 
(edge) grain, it makes a very satisfactory flooring, 
for it is close grained and presents a hard wearing 
surface. 


GENERAL QUALITY 

As the amount of surface clear cut from Noble 
Fir logs, generally runs from 60 to 80 per cent., the 
merchantable or common grades are consequently 
proportionately small. 

The smaller trees are fine grained and sound 
knotted, the knots being firm and red, and inter¬ 
woven with the fiber of the surrounding wood. For 
this reason an excellent “board” is the result, for 
stock boards, for barns, and other purposes where 



170 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


good sound common boards are wanted. This lum¬ 
ber holds a nail well, and produces good merchant¬ 
able piece stuff such as studs, joists, planks, timbers, 
and ties. 

In the butt cut of larger trees, the knots are often 
black and loose and lumber cut from this class of 
log produces a fine grade of “cut up” material. 

The wood is odorless, tasteless and non-resinous, 
making boxes fit for butter, and other articles which 
would taint from contact with some other kind of 
woods. 


WEIGHT 

While the wet, green lumber is heavy—much 
heavier than Douglas Fir, it dries out so that it 
ships considerably lighter. 

The above information on Noble Fir was supplied 
oy E. B. Hazen, of Bridal Veil. The West Coast 
Lumberman and “Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope” 
by George R. Sudworth. 


GRAND FIR—WHITE FIR 

Grand Fir (Abies Grandis) is a closely allied 
variety of White Fir (Abies Concolas) therefore, for 
all practical purposes, a description of one serves 
for both. 


WHITE FIR 

Abies Concolor 

White Fir is a massive tree and generally averages 
from 140 to 200 feet in height, with a diameter of 
40 to 60 inches. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


A< 1 


BARK 

The hark on the lower part of the tree is hard, 
and in color ashy gray, has wide furrows and ridges, 
and runs from 4 to 6 inches in thickness. On the 
upper stem, and also on young trees, the bark is 
smooth and unbroken, is about 1 inch in thickness, 
and of a grayish color with a brown tinge. 


WEIGHT 

When green the lumber is very heavy, and butt 
logs often sink in water. The wood naturally con¬ 
tains a large percentage of moisture, but after a 
thorough seasoning boards one inch in thickness will 
weigh about 2,000 pounds to 1,000 board feet. 


THE WOOD 

The wood is soft, straight grained and works 
easily. It is only used or suitable for a light class 
of construction work or temporary mining purposes. 
In color it is whitish-gray to light indistinct brown. 
The sawn product closely resembles Hemlock in 
appearance, but it is inferior to it for finish or con¬ 
struction. White Fir should on no account be 
classed or confused with Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga 
Taxifolia) which botanically is not a Fir, and the 
wood of which is entirely different and vastly supe¬ 
rior to that of the White Fir. 


OUTPUT 

More than half of the total output of White Fir is 
supplied by California, and approximately 10 per 
cent, each by Washington, Idaho and Oregon. 
Small quantities are produced in Montana, Colorado 
and other Rocky Mountain States. 




170 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


good sound common boards are wanted. This lum¬ 
ber holds a nail well, and produces good merchant¬ 
able piece stuff such as studs, joists, planks, timbers, 
and ties. 

In the butt cut of larger trees, the knots are often 
black and loose and lumber cut from this class of 
log produces a fine grade of “cut up” material. 

The wood is odorless, tasteless and non-resinous, 
making boxes fit for butter, and other articles which 
would taint from contact with some other kind of 
woods. 


WEIGHT 

While the wet, green lumber is heavy—much 
heavier than Douglas Fir, it dries out so that it 
ships considerably lighter. 

The above information on Noble Fir was supplied 
oy E. B. Hazen, of Bridal Veil. The West Coast 
Lumberman and “Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope” 
by George R. Sudworth. 


GRAND FIR—WHITE FIR 

Grand Fir (Abies Grandis) is a closely allied 
variety of White Fir (Abies Concolas) therefore, for 
all practical purposes, a description of one serves 
for both. 


WHITE FIR 

Abies Concolor 

White Fir is a massive tree and generally averages 
from 140 to 200 feet in height, with a diameter of 
40 to 60 inches. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


BARK 

The bark on the lower part of the tree is hard, 
and in color ashy gray, has wide furrows and ridges, 
and runs from 4 to 6 inches in thickness. On the 
upper stem, and also on young trees, the bark is 
smooth and unbroken, is about 1 inch in thickness, 
and of a grayish color with a brown tinge. 


WEIGHT 

When green the lumber is very heavy, and butt 
logs often sink in water. The wood naturally con¬ 
tains a large percentage of moisture, but after a 
thorough seasoning boards one inch in thickness will 
weigh about 2,000 pounds to 1,000 board feet. 


THE WOOD 

The wood is soft, straight grained and works 
easily. It is only used or suitable for a light class 
of construction work or temporary mining purposes. 
In color it is whitish-gray to light indistinct brown. 
The sawn product closely resembles Hemlock in 
appearance, but it is inferior to it for finish or con¬ 
struction. White Fir should on no account be 
classed or confused with Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga 
Taxifolia) which botanically is not a Fir, and the 
wood of which is entirely different and vastly supe¬ 
rior to that of the White Fir. 


OUTPUT 

More than half of the total output of White Fir is 
supplied by California, and approximately 10 per 
cent, each by Washington, Idaho and Oregon. 
Small quantities are produced in Montana, Colorado 
and other Rocky Mountain States. 




172 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


ITS USE FOR PULPWOOD 

Experiments conducted at the Forest Service 
laboratory at Washington show that this wood is 
admirably adapted for the production of paper pulp 
by the sulphite process. The wood is found to 
yield very readily to the action of the sulphite 
liquor used, which is of the usual commercial 
strength, viz., about 4.0 per cent total sulphur diox¬ 
ide, 1.0 per cent combined and 3.0 per cent avail¬ 
able. The length of treatment has varied in the 
different tests from eight to ten hours, and the 
steam pressure from 60 to 75 pounds. These pres¬ 
sures correspond to maximum temperatures of 153 
to 160 degrees C. 

The pulp produced in these experiments is from 
nearly white to light-brown in color, according to 
the variations in the method of cooking, and by 
selecting the proper conditions of treatment, it 
would be readily possible to produce a grade of 
fiber which could be used in many kinds of paper 
without the least bleaching. If, however, it is de¬ 
sired to employ the fiber for white book or writing 
papers, it could be readily bleached to a good white 
color. Results of laboratory tests show that the 
bleach required to bring the fiber up to the usual 
color for bleached sulphite spruce fiber is from 15 
to 23 per cent to the weight of unbleached fiber; 
that is, assuming the bleaching powder to contain 
35 per cent available chloride. Sulphite spruce fiber 
now on the market requires from 175 to 500 pounds 
of 35 per cent bleach per ton of product or from 9 
to 24 per cent of the unbleached fiber. It is seen, 
therefore, that so far as bleaching is concerned, 
the pulp made from white fir is just as good as that 
made from spruce. 

The yields obtained in these experiments ranged 
from 43 to 49 per cent on the bone-dry basis. This 
is exclusive of screenings, which in no case exceed 
1% per cent of the dry wood used. From careful 
observation of the methods employed in determin- 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


173 


ing the yields, it seems probable that those figures 
will be increased slightly when larger quantities of 
wood are used, and it is believed that in the matter 
of yield the Fir wood is fully equal to spruce. 

The fiber from these cooks is in most cases light 
colored and somewhat lustrous, and the sheets 
formed from it without any beating are remarkably 
tough and strong. Microscopic examination and 
measurements show that the fibers are of very 
remarkable length, being from one-half to )two- 
thirds as long again as the commercial sulphite 
spruce fiber. 

It is believed from the results that, so far as the 
product is concerned, the manufacture of fiber from 
white fir would be a commercial success, and that 
the fiber produced would find its greatest useful¬ 
ness in the production of manilas where great 
strength is required, and in tissues which need very 
long fibers. It seems probable, also, that it would 
make very good newspaper, for which purpose its 
naturally light color would particularly adapt it. 


HOW TO FIGURE LUMBER 

BOARD MEASURE 

Lumber is usually reckoned by Board Measure, 
the unit being a square foot one inch thick. 

Lumber less than one inch thick is figured as of 
one inch. 

The ordinary way of finding the contents of squared 
lumber is to multiply together the length in feet, 
the width and thickness in inches and divide the 
product by 12. 

Figuring lumber by the above rule is a slow pro¬ 
cess, and the following system is adopted by experts 
whose business makes rapid calculation essential 
to tneir success. 





174 THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Multiply together the thickness and width in 
inches, divide the product by 12 and multiply result 
by the length; the answer is Board Measure con¬ 
tents. 


EXAMPLES 


A few examples will show the system for finding 
the contents of standard sizes in a few seconds, 
and many of them without a moment’s hesitation. 


Example: Find the Board Measure contents of 

the following sizes: 


Contents. 


Pcs. 

Size. 

Length. 

B. M. 

1 

2x 8 inches 

30 feet 

40 

1 

4x10 inches 

18 feet 

60 

1 

10x10 inches 

36 feet 

300 

1 

20x20 inches 

60 feet 

2000 


Operation: 2x8 equals 16 divided by 12 equals 

or 1|. When this is multiplied by the length 
the answer is 40 feet; in other words, add one-third 
to the length and you have the Board Measure 
contents. 


Operation: 4x10 equals 40 divided by 12 equals 
3J or . In this instance a cipher is added to 
the length and when this is divided by three the 
result is 60 feet Board Measure contents. 


10x10 equals 100; this divided by 12 equals 8J, 
or 100/12. It is easier to multiply by 100 and divide 
by 12 than to multiply by 8J, therefore add two 
ciphers to the length and divide by 12; the result 
is 300 feet Board Measure contents. 


20x20 equals 400, divided by 12 equals 33J, or 
100/3. All that is necessary is to add two ciphers 
to the length and divide by 3; the result is 2000 
feet, Board Measure contents. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


175 


After a short reflection on the above method, it 
will be apparent to everyone that when this system 
is used I have made good my statement that the 
contents of any ordinary stick of lumber can be 
figured inside of a few seconds. 

The following standard sizes and multiples for 
same will serve as a basis for practice, and when 
memorized will benefit those who wish to become 
rapid in figuring lumber, and at the same time may 
prove a stepping stone to a better position and suc¬ 
cessful career. 

STANDARD SIZES AND MULTIPLES 

1x3 Divide lineal feet by 4. 

1x4 Divide lineal feet by 3. 

1x6 Divide lineal feet by 2. 

1x8 Multiply lineal feet by 2 and divide by 3. 

1 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 12. 

1 xl2 Lineal feet and Board Measure the same. 
2x3 Divide lineal feet by 2. 

2x4 Multiply lineal feet by 2 and divide by 3. 
2x8 Add to lineal feet J of amount. 

2 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 6. 

2 xl2 Multiply lineal feet by 2. 

3x3 Multiply lineal feet by 3 and divide by 4. 
3x4 Lineal feet and Board Measure the same. 
3x6 Add to lineal feet \ the amount. 

3x8 Multiply lineal feet by 2. 

3 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 4. 

3 xl2 Multiply lineal feet by 3. 

4x4 Add to lineal feet i of amount. 

4x6 Multiply lineal feet by 2. 

4x8 Multiply lineal feet by 3 and subtract i 
lineal feet from amount. 

4 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 3. 

4 xl2 Multiply lineal feet by 4. 

8x8 Multiply lineal feet by 5J. 

10x10 Multiply lineal feet by 100 and divide by 12. 
12x12 Multiply lineal feet by 12. 



176 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


14x14 Multiply lineal feet by 165. 

16x16 Multiply lineal feet by 215. 

18x18 Multiply lineal feet by 27. 

20x20 Multiply lineal feet by 100 and divide by 3. 
22x22 Multiply lineal feet by 405. 

24x24 Multiply lineal feet by 48. 


ANOTHER METHOD 


A handy method for computing Board Measure 

contents, preferred by a number of lumbermen, is 

as follows: 

For all 12 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness. 

For all 14 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, 
and add 1/6. 

For all 16 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, 
and add 5- 

For all 18 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, 
and add |. 

For all 20 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, 
and add §. 

For all 22 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, 
and add 5/6. 

For all 24 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, 

and double. 


Some objection may be taken to the use of § and 
5/6, but often by transposition you can substitute 
1/6, 5, or 5, as in the following: 


Examples: 

10 pcs. 1x18—22 changed to 10 pcs. 1x22—18. 

16 pcs. 1x22—20 changed to 20 pcs. 1x22—16. 

In the first example, instead of multiplying 10x18 
and adding 5/6 to the result, multiply 10x22 and 
add one-half to the result, which will give 330 ft. 
Board Measure. In the second item, instead of mul¬ 
tiplying 16x22 and adding §, multiply 20x22 and add 
5, which gives 586§ ft. Board Measure. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


177 


The above system is very handy, when figuring 
lumber from 12 to 24 feet in length, and also where 
odd widths and thicknesses frequently occur. 

MULTIPLICATION 

In computing contents of lumber it is often neces¬ 
sary to multiply by the figures from 13 to 19. A 
simple process is to multiply by the unit of the 
multiplier, set down the product under, and one place 
to the right of, and then add to the multiplicand. 

Example: Multiply 238 by 15. 

238 

1190 

3570 Answer 

To multiply any number by 101 to 109. 

Example: Multiply 24356 by 103. 

24356 

73068 


2508668 Answer 

Multiply by the unit of the multiplier, placing the 
product two figures to the right as in above example. 

To multiply by 21-31-41-51-61-71-81-91. 

Set the product by the tens under the multipli¬ 
cand in proper position and add, thus: 

Example: Multiply 76432 by 61. 

Operation: 

76432x61 

458592 

— 


4662352 





178 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


If ciphers occur between the two digits of the 
multiplier, the same method can be used by placing 
the figures in the correct position, thus: 

Example: Multiply 76432 by 6001. 

Operation: 

76432x6001 

458592 


458668432 

FRACTIONAL SIZES 

To find the Board Measure contents of lumber 1| 
and 1\ inches in thickness, proceed as if the lum¬ 
ber were of one inch and to the amount obtained 
add one-quarter or one-half, as the case may be. 

To bring the lineal feet of fractional lumber to 
board measure when your time is limited, and you 
are not familiar with the correct multiple, multiply 
the lineal feet by the thickness, width and length 
and divide result by twelve. 

ADDITION OF FRACTIONS 

Find the sum of | and 
39 40 

3 + 5 — 79 

8 13 104 Answer 

Explanation: Multiply the denominator (8) of 

the first fraction by the numerator (5) of the second 
fraction, which gives 40. Next multiply the numer¬ 
ator (3) of the first fraction by the denominator 
(13) of the second fraction, which gives 39. Now 
unite these products (40+39=79), which gives the 
numerator of the answer. The denominator of the 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


179 


answer is the product of the denominators 
(8x13—104). 


MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS 

When both the whole numbers are the same, and 
the sum of the fractions is a unit. 

Examples: 

Multiply 4Jx4i Answer 20J 
Multiply 7|x7| Answer 56 
Multiply S$x9§ Answer 90 

Operation: 

4x4+4=r20+ixi=20| 

7x7+7—56+1x1=56 

9x'9+9=90+Sx§=90 

When the whole numbers are alike and the frac¬ 
tions are one-half, such as llxli, 2£x2§, 
12ixl2J, add one to one of the whole numbers, then 
multiply the whole numbers together and to the re¬ 
sult add the multiplication of the halves, which 
always equals one-quarter. 


The following examples are self-explanatory: 

As Common Fractions: 


UX 

1 h equals 

ix 

2 plus \ or 

21 

2iX 

2| equals 

2X 

3 plus l or 

61 

nx 

3J equals 

3X 

4 plus l or 

121 

12hX 121 equals 

12x 13 plus \ or 

156J 


109^x1091 equals 109x110 plus \ or 119902 


Answer. 

Answer. 

Answer. 

Answer. 

Answer. 


AS DECIMAL FRACTIONS 

1.5X 1.5 equals lx 2 plus 25/100 or 2.25 

2.5x 2.5 equals 2x 3 plus 25/100 or 6.25 

3.5X 3.5 equals 3x 4 plus 25/100 or 12.25 

12.5X 12.5 equals 12x 13 plus 25/100 or 156.25 

SS'06611 -IO 00I/9S snid 0IIX60I spmba g-60lXg-60I 





180 


HE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


MULTIPLICATION OF MIXED NUMBERS 

Multiply 46§ by 21|. 

L peration: 

322) 46§ 

42) 211 


966.14 

40.6 

14.0 

1020 

Explanation: Find the product of the whole num¬ 
bers (966) and to the right put down the product of 
the numerators of the fractions (2x7=14). Now 
multiply the numerator (7) of the lower fraction 
by the upper whole number (46), which gives 322. 
Write this on the left of the upper number. Now 
divide the product thus obtained by the denominator 
(8) of the lower fraction, which gives 40 and a re¬ 
mainder of 2. Write the 40 in the whole number 
column and the remainder (2) we multiply by the 
upper denominator (3), which gives a product of 
6 and is written under 14 in the fraction column. 

Now multiply the lower whole number (21) by 
the numerator (2) of the upper fraction, which gives 
42. Write it on the left. Now divide 42 by the 
denominator (3) of the upper fraction, which gives 
14 and no remainder. Write a cipher in the fraction 
column. Now add the partial products and the prod¬ 
uct is complete. In cases where the partial products 
of the fractions amount to more than 1, carry the 
excess to the whole numbers. 

DIVISION OF MIXED NUMBERS 

Divide 46| by 7. 

Operation: 

7)46§ 


6 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


181 


Explanation: In cases where the divisor is a 

whole number, the foregoing example does away 
with the usual method of reducing dividend and 
divisor to the same denomination. 

Proceed as follows: 7 is contained 6 times in 46, 
with a remainder of 4. Write down t> and to pro¬ 
duce the fraction of the quotient we multiply the 
remainder (4) by the denominator (8), which gives 
32; to this is added the numerator (5) and we have 
the 37, the numerator of the quotient. 

The product of the divisor by the denominator is 
the denominator (56) of the answer. 

SHORT RULES 

3-inch Plank: One-half the width multiplied by 
half the length, gives the Board Measure contents. 

12-foot Lengths: The Board Measure contents of 
any piece of lumber 12 feet long is equal to the 
thickness and width multiplied together. 

Lumber 6 inches in Thickness: Half the width 
multiplied by the length gives the Board Measure 
contents. 

To find Board Measure contents of 4"x8" multiply 
lineal feet by 2 and add one-third to the product. 

Example: How many feet board measure are 

there in a piece of 4x8", 30 feet long? 

Operation: 

30 

Multiplied by 2 
60 

i of 60=20 

80 ft. B. M. Answer. 

To find board measure contents of 8"x8", divide 
lineal feet by 2, add one cipher to the result and to 




182 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


I** n . 

this amount add one-third of the lineal feet. This 
system requires no mental effort in even lengths up 
to 26 feet long. 

Examples: Find board measure contents of 1 

piece 8"x8"—18 and 26 ft. long respectively. 

Operation: 

18 divided by 2 equals 9. 

18 divided by 3 equals 6. 

Place the 6 to the right of 9 and you have the 
answer, 96 ft. B. M. 

26 divided by 2 equals 13. 

26 divided by 3 equals 8§. 

Place the 8§ to the right of 13 and you have the 
answer, 138§ ft. B. M. 

To Convert Board Measure to Lineal Feet, simply 
reverse the multiple used to bring lineal feet to 
Board Measure; in other words, multiply Board feet 
by 12 and divide by thickness and width. 

Example: How many lineal feet are there in 1000 
feet Board Measure of 2x8? 

Process: 

100D 

it 


2) 12000 


8) 6000 


750 lineal feet. Answer. 

Car orders frequently call for a specified amount 
of sizes containing special lengths. Before proceed¬ 
ing to load, it is necessary to find the number of 
pieces required. 

Find the number of pieces in the following order: 

1000 ft. B. M. 2x4-14. 

1000 ft. B. M. 2x4-16. 

1000 ft. B. M. 2x4-20. 






THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


183 


Bring the Board Measure to lineal feet as shown 
in previous example, then divide the length into 
lineal feet. The result will be the number of pieces. 

Process: 

1000 

12 


2) 12000 


4) 6000 


1500 lineal feet. 


The lineal feet given is now divided by the re¬ 
spective lengths and the following answer is ob¬ 
tained: 


107 

Pcs. 

2x4—14 

containing 

998 

ft. 

8 

in. 

B. 

M. 

94 

Pcs. 

2x4—16 

containing 

1002 

ft. 

8 

in. 

B. 

M. 

75 

Pcs. 

2x4—20 

containing 

1000 

ft. 



B. 

M. 

276 




3001 

ft. 

4 

in. 

B. 

M. 


FIGURING 

SQUARE 

TIMBERS 


This method of computing the Board Measure con¬ 
tents of square or rectangular timbers that exceed 
12 inches one or both ways, is known to but very 









384 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


few, if any, lumbermen. It is a rapid way of figur¬ 
ing the majority of sizes, and on account of its sim¬ 
plicity the system is easily committed to memory. 


FIGURING 

RECTANGULAR 

TIMBERS 


Rule: Multiply length by width, and to the result 
add one-twelfth of the thickness for each inch that 
exceeds twelve. 

Example: Find the Board Measure contents of a 
timber 13"xl7"-—48 feet long. 

Operation: 

48 

336 

48 multiplied by 17 equals 816 
816 divided by 12 equals 68 


884 Ans. in B. M. Cont. 

Explanation: Multiply the length (48 ft.) by the 
width (17 in.), which equals 816. Now as the thick¬ 
ness (13 in.) exceeds 12 inches by one inch, consider 
this as one-twelfth, which is divided into 816 and 
equals 68. This amount is added to the 816 and the 
result is 884 ft. Board Measure contents. 

The following multiples will be of assistance to 
those who wish to practice this system of finding 
Board Measure contents of timbers by the preceding 
rule. 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


185 


12x13 Multiply length by 13 

13x14 Multiply length by 14 and add 1/12 of result 

14x14 Multiply length by 14 and add 1/6 of result 

14x15 Multiply length by 15 and add 1/6 of result 

15x15 Multiply length by 15 and add \ of result 

15x16 Multiply length by 16 and add \ of result 

16x16 Multiply length by 16 and add J of result 

16x17 Multiply length by 17 and add J of result 

16x18 Multiply length by 18 and add | of result 

18x18 Multiply length by 18 and add \ of result 

24x24 Multiply length by 24 and 2 

26x26 Multiply length by 26 and 2 1/6 
28x28 Multiply length by 28 and 2J 

30x30 Multiply length by 30 and 2J 

36x36 Multiply length by 36 and 3 

TAPERING LUMBER 

How to Figure Trapezoids, or Boards With Only Two 
Parallel Sides 

Find the Board Measure contents of a board one 
inch thick, whose parallel sides are 16 feet and 20 
feet in length and 8 inches wide. 



Add together the two parallel sides, and divide 
their sum by 2, multiply the result by the inches in 
width and divide by 12. The answer is 12 feet Board 
Measure contents. 






56 THE practical lumberman 

Operation: 


16 

20 


2) 36 

18 

8 

12)144 


12 ft. Board Measure. 

Find the Board Measure contents of a board one 

inph thlC ^’ iq - fee i? l0ng whose Parallel ends are 10 
inches and 18 inches respectively. 



Operation: 

10 

18 

2) 28 

14 

24 


12)336 


28 ft. Board Measure. 















THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


187 


HOW TO FIGURE THE FRUSTUM OF A 
PYRAMID, OR TAPERING TIMBER 

As it frequently occurs there is a difference of 
opinion as to the correct way of ascertaining the 
Board Measure contents of tapering timber, the fol¬ 
lowing method is both simple and correct, and will 
enable anyone to figure the exact contents without 
diving into square root. 

Find the contents of a timber 40 feet high, 12x12 
inches at the bottom and 6x6 inches at the top. 



Square both ends separately, then multiply the 
top by the bottom side, add the sum together, and 
multiply this by the height and in all cases divide 
by 36. 

Operation: 

12x12 144 bottom 

6x 6 36 top 

6x12 72 top and bottom 


252 

40 ft. high. 


36) 10080 ( 280 *i. p. M.—Ans. 
72 


288 

288 


0 

The common error that would be made in figuring 
a timber of this dimension would be to call it 9x0 










188 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


the supposed size at the middle; the contents in that 
case would be 270 feet, or a difference of 10 feet. 
This is an important item that should he taken 
into consideration when figuring on contracts or 

freight. 

I will now prove the method I use is correct by 
figuring a square timber on the same principal as a 
tapering stick. 

Find the Board Measure contents of a timber 12 
inches square and 40 feet long. 

Operation: 

12x12 144 bottom 

12x12 144 top 

12x12 144 top and bottom 


432 


40 ft. long. 

36) 17280 (480 ft. B. M. contents. 


144 

288 

288 


0 

CONTENTS BY PROGRESSIVE ADDITION 


This rule is of great advantage when there is a 

range of odd and even lengths. 


Example 1: Find 

the number of lineal feet in the 

following: 



Ft. Long. 

Pieces. 

Lin. Ft. 

10 

0 

480 

11 

8 

48 

12 

6 

40 

13 

4 

34 

14 

7 

30 

15 

23 

23 


48 

655 







THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


189 


Explanation: First put down the pieces of the 
longest length (23 Pcs.) to this, add the pieces of 
the next longest length (7 Pcs.), which makes 30, put 
this down over the 23; now add to this the next 
number of pieces (4), which makes 34; add the 
next number (6), which makes 40; to this add the 
8, which makes 48. The last item, in this case 48, 
if correct, will correspond with the total number of 
pieces. 

This number (48) is multiplied by the shortest 
length, minus one, which in this case is ten. Now 
48x10 equals 480; add this amount to the figures 
already obtained and the grand total is the number 
of lineal feet (655), not board feet. 


When there are missing lengths repeat the num¬ 
ber of pieces as shown by the following example: 


Example 2: 


Long. 

Pieces. 

Lin. Ft. 

12 

0 

924 

13 

15 

77 

14 

0 

62 

15 

19 

62 

16 

0 

43 

17 

43 

43 


77 

1211 


Explanation: In the foregoing example there are 
no pieces 14 or 16 feet long, so the amounts are re¬ 
peated when there is a blank length. As in Example 
No. 1, the total pieces are multiplied by the shortest 
length, minus one. In this instance the 77 pieces 
are multiplied by 12, which gives 924, and the total 
addition shows 1211, the lineal feet. 



290 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


FOR EVEN LENGTHS ONLY 


Find the number 

of lineal 

feet in the following: 

Ft. Long. 

Pieces. 

Lin. Ft. 

12 

46 

287 

14 

54 

241 

16 

62 

187 

16 

58 

125 

20 

67 

67 


287 907 

907 
2870 

4684 

Explanation: This system is the same as the pre¬ 
ceding examples, with the exception that the addi¬ 
tion (907) is repeated or doubled, and to this is 
added the number of pieces (287) multiplied by the 
next shortest even length (10). These items are 
now added together and the result shows the lineal 
feet (4684). 

CARGO SPECIFICATIONS 

As there does not seem to be any fixed rule for 
making up specifications in a uniform manner, refer¬ 
ence to this subject will not be out of place. Some 
mills adopt the system of making all Domestic and 
Foreign Export Specifications out in feet Board 
Measure for each size and length, while others make 
out their specifications in lineal feet for each length 
and then add up their total and bring same to Board 
Measure. 

The latter system of making out the extensions in 
lineal feet should be universally adopted, as every¬ 
one who is familiar with this class of work knows 
that a specification with the extensions in lineal feet, 
and showing the totals in Board Measure, can be 






THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


191 


finished in a quarter the time of a specification that 
shows the feet Board Measure for each length. 

Steam schooners often arrive at San Francisco 
before the cargo manifest reaches consignee ; this 
inconvenience and delay could often be avoided by 
the time gained in making up specifications with the 
extensions in lineal feet instead of Board Measure. 

Foreign buyers, especially in the British trade, use 
the lineal measure more extensively than any other, 
and when they receive specifications in feet Board 
Measure they are put to the unnecessary inconven¬ 
ience of converting them to lineal feet to correspond 
with their tables and price lists. 

SHORT METHOD OF FIGURING SPECIFICATIONS 

A very easy and short method of obtaining the 
Board Measure contents of each size and length, 
when required, is to halve the length and double the 
thicKness. Simple as this rule seems, it is unknown 
to many experts. 

Example: Find the Board Measure contents of 
each length in the following size: 

Feet 


Pieces. 

Size. 

Length. 

B. M. 

53 _ 

.. 2x10 

12 

1060 

42 . 

.. 2x10 

14 

980 

36 . 

.. 2x10 

16 

960 

48 . 

.. 2x10 

18 

1440 

36 . 

.. 2x10 

20 

1200 

30 . 

,. 2x10 

22 

1100 

12 . 

.. 2x10 

24 

480 


257 7220 

In the above example, instead of saying twelve 
times fifty-three, halve the length and say six times 
fifty-three is three hundred and eighteen (318); now 
by doubling the thickness, we have the equal of 












192 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


4x10 instead of 2x10; therefore, by adding a cipher to 
the 318 and dividing by 3, we have the Board Measure 
contents of the first length. The same rule applies 
to tne remainder of lengths. 

When it is only necessary to find the total feet 
Board Measure in a size containing a range of 
lengths, halve the lengths or pieces, and multiply 
the total result by the multiple of double the thick¬ 
ness of the size. 

Example: Find the total feet Board Measure con¬ 
tained in the following: 


Pieces. Size. Length. Contents. 

224 . 3x 6 16 1792 

112 . 3x6 18 1008 

568 . 3 x 6 20 5680 

45 . 3 x 6 22 495 

120 . 3x 6 24 1440 


1069 10415 

3 


Feet B. M. 31245 


HOW TO DECREASE OR INCREASE ORDERS 

The method of decreasing or increasing orders 
will now be explained. 

Reduce the following order by 44,000 feet Board 
Measure: 


240,000 feet 12x12—40 to 60 
280,000 feet 14x14—40 to 60 
420,000 feet 16x16—40 to 60 
160,000 feet 18x18—40 to 60 


1,100,000 

The first step necessary is to find the required 
percentage to reduce order in proportion. This is 












THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


193 


done by adding two ciphers to the amount that the 
order is to be reduced by and dividing the result 
by the amount of order. In this case it is 4 per cent. 
Each item must now be reduced separately by the 
percentage obtained, as follows: 

Original Reduced 

Amt. of Decrease. Order. Order. 

9,600 ft. or 4% from 240,000 ft. leaves 230,400 

11,200 ft. or 4% from 280,000 ft. leaves 268,800 

16,800 ft. or 4% from 420,000 ft. leaves 403,200 

6,400 ft. or 4% from 160,000 ft. leaves 153,600 


44,000 1,100,000 1,056,000 


If the above order of 1,100,000 feet had to be in¬ 
creased by 44,000 feet, 4% would be added to each 
item, and the total would show the amount of order 
when increased. 

FIGURING PERCENTAGES 

Cargo orders for California usually call for stipu¬ 
lated percentages of Nos. 1 and 2 in the merchantable 
grades and clear and select in the uppers. 

During progress of loading, it is essential to keep 
posted on the proportion of the percentage so as to 
avoid over-running or falling short on a grade. 

Presume an order calls for 800,000 feet Nos. 1 and 
2 Mcht., 25% No'. 2 allowed, and in figuring up to 
see how your percentage is, you find your order 
stands thus: 

306,600 ft. No. 1 
113,400 ft. No. 2 


420,000 ft. Total on board. 

The following is the way to find your percentage: 










194 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Cut off the two right hand figures in your total 
(420,000) and divide the remaining amount (4200) 
into the Nos. 1 and 2 respectively. If your answer 
is correct your combined percentages will add to 
100 . 


Operation: 

No. 1 Mcht. 
4200)306600)73% 
29400 


12600 

12600 


No. 2 Mcht. 
4200)113400(27% 
8400 


29400 

29400 


Amount and Percentage 

306,600 No. 1 or 73% of 420,000 

113,400 No. 2 or 27% of 420,000 

420,000 Total 100% 

As your No. 2 in this instance exceeds the 25% 
allowed, notify the proper authorities of the fact, 
so that arrangements can be made to bring grade up 
to the required percentage. 


HOW TO CUT METRICAL LENGTHS 

Orders from France and Belgium usually call for 
lengths of lumber to be cut to what is terms Met¬ 
rical feet. 

The required length is equivalent to 13| inches. 
The thickness and width correspond to English 
measure. 

French orders contain large amounts of 3x9 of 
number 1 and 2 Clear grade. 









THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


195 


HOW TO FIGURE METRICAL ORDERS 

To convert Metrical to English lengths, multiply 
by 35 and divide by 32, or to the Metrical Feet add 
one-twelfth and one-eighth of one-twelfth. 

In bringing Metrical to English lengths, the use 
of decimals will be an advantage. 

How many feet, Board Measure, are contained in 
the following items of 3x9 cut to Metrical Feet. 


process: 

Pcs. 

Size. Met. Ft. 

Extensions. 

60 

3x9 12 

720 

114 

3x9 14 

1,596 

112 

3x9 16 

1,792 

40 

3x9 18 

720 

60 

3x9 20 

1,200 

383 


6,028 Met. 


502.33 

62.79 


6,593.12 Eng. Lin. Ft. 

2^4 

13,186.24 

1,648.28 


14,834.52 Ft. B. M. 

The addition of the extensions shows the number 
of Metrical Lin. Feet, the line below shows that 
amount divided by 12, and this in turn is divided 
by 8. 

The total thus obtained shows the English Lin. 
Feet. This is brought to Board Measure in the usual 
way by multiplying by 2 1 / 4. 







196 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SYSTEM FOR MILL TALLYMEN AND 
INSPECTORS 

Presume it is necessary to make a sheet to keep 
track of the following order, the sample copies show 
the system in use by experienced mill tallymen. 

Specification for Melbourne per SS. Julia, April or 
May Shipment. 


J 








10 

M 

feet 

1 

x 9- 

-12 

to 

24. 

10 

M 

feet 

1 

xl2- 

-12 

to 

24. 

30 

M 

feet 

lixl2- 

-12 

to 

32. 

20 

M 

feet 

2 

x 3- 

-12 

to 

24. 

70 

M 

feet 

2 

x 9- 

-12 

to 

32. 

30 

M 

feet 

2 

xll- 

-12 

to 

32. 

70 

M 

feet 

2 

xl2— 

-12 

to 

32. 

140 

,M 

feet 

3 

x 9- 

-12 

to 

32. 

30 

M 

feet 

3 

xll- 

-12 

to 

32. 

50 

M 

feet 

4 

x 9- 

-12 

to 

32. 

50 

M 

feet 

4 

xl2- 

-12 

to 

32. 

750 

M 

feet 

6 

xl2- 

-20 

to 

50. 

100 

M 

feet 

6 

xl4- 

-20 

to 

50. 

200 

M 

feet 

6 

xl6- 

-20 

to 

50. 

100 

M 

feet 

9 

x 9- 

-30 

to 

50. 

1660 

M 

feet ! 

B. 

M. 





All Mcht. Chute Mark X. Rush 6x12. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


197 


SYSTEM USED BY SHORTAGE CLERK AND 
MILL TALLYMEN TO KEEP RECORD 
OF MILL CUT 

SS. “Julia," for Melbourne. Mcht. Chute Mark “K.” 


10 M | 

| 10 M | 30 M 

| 20 M 

j 70 M 

o 

CO 

| 70 M 

140 M 

1x9 

1x12 |11x12 

| 

2x3 

j 2x9 

2x11 

| 2x12 | 

3x9 

12-24 

12-24 J 12-32 

12-24 

j 

12-32 

' 12-32 

' 12-32 

| 

12-32 

18 

36 

74 

48 | 

96 

192 | 

400 

72 

618 

12 

6 

116 

124 

66 

132 

198 

24 

66 

140 

108 

54 

240 

162 

128 

336 | 

1 

1 1 

396 

230 

1108 


30 M 

| 50 M 

50 M 

750 M 1100 M 

200 M [100 M 

3x11 

| 4x9 

4x12 

j 6x12 | 

1 6x14 

6x16 

| 9x9 

12-32 

| 

| 12-32 

12-32 

' 20-50 

20-50 

20-50 

30-50 

66 

132 

| 72 

180 

240 

492 

128 

400 

180 

708 

300 

1600 

120 

1200 

1800 

720 

840 

960 

-! 

7540 | 

154 

280 

400 

1 

338 

243 

198 

1 

434 

581 









































198 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


After the lumber is sawn and trimmed, the marker 
or tallyman put Chute Mark on it, the tallyman puts 
down on sheet under respective sizes the number of 
feet, Board Measure, contained in the stick. When 
the day's work !s completed the sheets are turned 
in to the mill lumber inspector, or shortage clerk, 
who in turn enters them into the shortage book, 
which corresponds in form with the sheets used by 
mill tallymen. The shortage clerk will make short¬ 
ages once or twice a week and oftener if necessary. 

Fractional and small sizes should be gotten out 
first then select and clear, if any, and also sizes that 
contain large amounts. Easy sizes should be held 
back till the vessel is catching up with mill. Long- 
logs suitable for order should be kept in reserve till 
it is ascertained that vessel can take the lengths 
ordered. 

Small hatches and compartments in some ships 
or steamers often make it impossible for them to 
take the long lengths ordered in specification. 

When cutting on orders, they should be gotten 
out in proportion and in such shape that any length 
log will apply on bill and that the sawyers have a 
good range of sizes and lengths to work on till ves¬ 
sel is loaded. 

The entire order should be cut down about 5 per 
cent, in mill to allow for errors—over-run sizes, or 
vessel failing to carry all the original order. 

When cutting on California Stock Orders, in sizes 
2x3 and 2x4, make as many 10, 18 and 20-foot lengths 
as possible; this is the length for Studs; 2x10—26 
for floor joists are in great demand. 

When Deck Plank or other orders are similar to 
the following, say 50,000 feet 3x5—24 to 40, average 
32 feet or over, the mill tallyman must keep count 
of number of pieces as well as feet, so that he can 
tell how his average stands. 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


199 


CIVIL SERVICE ADDITION 


As long additions often play an im- 8421 

portant part in specifications the civil ser- 6729 

vice method is a good system, can readily 4622 

be checked, and should you be interrupted 314 

at your work you would only have to go 413 

over one column again instead of several. 6473 


9346 

8642 

1024 

725 

6428 

7647 

54 

33 

54 

55 

60784 

BANKERS METHOD OF ADDING 

This System is the same as the Civil Service 


Method, with the exception that in add- 8421 

ing the columns the number carried is 6729 

“added in” to each partial sum. 4622 

The Bankers’ Method is an improve- 314 

ment on the Civil Service as it does not 413 
require a second addition. The number 6473 

to he carried is always in sight in the 9346 

Bankers’ Method, being the tens figure 8642 

of the last partial sum written. The 1024 
sum can be written at once. 725 

6428 

7647 

54 

38 

57 


60 


60784 







200 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


TO FIGURE CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS 

LUMBER 

To find the amount of Rough Green Lumber any 
car will carry, cut off a cipher from the marked 
capacity in pounds, add 10 per cent, and multiply 
by 3; the result will be the limit of feet Board 
Measure the car is allowed to carry. 

Example: What is the limit in feet Board Meas¬ 
ure allowed a car of 80,000 pounds capacity? 

8000 pounds. 

800 10 per cent. 


8800x3 equals 26,400 ft. Board Measure.—Answer. 


SHINGLES 

To find approximate number of 16-inch Shingles 
that can be loaded in a box car. 

Ascertain cubical capacity of the car, and to the 
number of cubic feet add two ciphers; the result 
will be the number of Shingles. 

When loading Shingles or Lumber in furniture 
cars, precautions should be taken against exceeding 
the weight limit. 


STANDARDS 

The frequent inquiries as to the meaning of Stand¬ 
ards have led the writer to believe that particulars 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


201 


on this subject obtained through the courtesy of 
Alfred Haworth & Co., Ltd., London, publishers of 
Timber News, will be appreciated. 

The “St. Petersburg Standard” is used in Great 
Britain, almost to the entire exclusion of all other 
standards. 

The wholesale trade as a rule sells boards, bat¬ 
tens, deals, planks, etc., by the Standard. 

The Standard (St. Petersburg) deal contains 1 
piece 3x11—6 feet and 120 pieces of this dimension 
make one Standard. 


COMPOSITION OF STANDARDS 



Pcs. 

Size. Length. 

B. M. 

Cu. Ft, 



Inches. 

Feet. 

Contents. 

St. Petersburg . . 

. 120 

3 xll 

6 

1980 

165 

Irish or London . 

. 120 

3x9 

12 

3240 

270 

Christiania . 

. 120 

lix 9 

11 

1237J 

103$ 

Drammen . 

. 120 

2Jx6J 

9 

1462J 

1211 

Quebec . 

. 100 

2ixll 

12 

2750 

229 


The Drontheim Standard varies for different kinds 
of lumber. It contains: 

2376 feet B. M. of Sawn Deals. 

2160 feet B. M. of Square Timber. 

1728 feet B. M. of Round Timber. 

The Wyburg Standard contains: 

2160 feet B. M. of Sawn Deals. 

1963§ feet B. M. of Square Timber. 

1560 feet B. M. of Round Timber. 

100 St. Petersburg Standard Deals equal 60 Quebec 
Deals. 

The Riga “Last” contains 960 feet B. M. of Sawn 
Deals or Square Timber. 

A Load contains 600 feet B. M. 








202 THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


One Ton of Timber contains 480 feet B. M. 

A Cubic Fathom of Lathwood is 6 ft. x 6 ft. x 6 ft. 
and contains 216 cubic feet or 2592 feet B. M. 

A Gross Hundred (120 pieces) makes a Standard 
Hundred. 


FIGURING OF STANDARDS 

Bring the following specification to Standard 
Measurement: 

24 Pieces lx5| 24 
20 Pieces lx 6 16 

20 Pieces 1x12 20 

40 Pieces 2x10 24 

10 Pieces 2x12 22 

Reduce each item as follows by multiplying the 
number of Pieces and all their dimensions together. 

24x1x54x24 20x1x6—16 20x1x12—20 

111 


18 20 20 

5J 6 12 


99 120 240 

24 16 20 


2376 1920 4800 


When the products are obtained, then add together 
the total number of inches as shown in the specifi¬ 
cation below, which totals: 


24 Pieces 1x54 
20 Pieces lx 6 
20 Pieces 1x12 
40 Pieces 2x10 
10 Pieces 2x12 


24— 2376 inches. 
16— 1920 inches. 
20— 4800 inches. 
24—19200 inches, 
22— 5280 inches, 


33576 inches. 














THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


203 


Always divide the total (in this instance 33576) 
by the following figures, which are standing divisors 
and never vary; thus: 

11)33576 


18)3052 


30)169 || 


4)5.19}g Std. Quarter. Deals. Parts. 


1.1.1910/18 equals, 1 1 19 10/18 

LOADING MODERN STEAMERS WITH 
LUMBER 

PASSING OF SAILING VESSELS 

The passing of sailing vessels and the advent of 
steamers as carriers of lumber to Foreign ports 
make it necessary that an expert lumberman should 
be employed by the charterers or buyers to superin¬ 
tend the loading of cargo. 

Until recently sailing vessels or an occasional 
tramp steamer carrying one or two orders were the 
general rule, and under these circumstances, one 
of the ship’s officers, assisted by the stevedore and 
mill company, could usually handle the stowage of 
cargo in a satisfactory manner. 


EXPERIENCED LUMBERMAN AS SUPER-CARGO 

But times have changed and to keep pace with 
modern conditions it is absolutely essential, that a 
practical lumberman thoroughly conversant with 
cargo trade be employed, whose knowledge will be 
of great assistance to the stevedore or others in¬ 
terested in loading the vessel with prompt dis¬ 
patch. 








204 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


To the experienced lumberman wishing to act as 
super-cargo, or who is desirous of acquiring know¬ 
ledge on this subject the following information, 
especially on water ballast, will enable him to suc¬ 
cessfully hold this position, and guard against the 
many difficulties encountered by others. 


THE SHIP’S OR BUILDER5S PLAN 

By obtaining a “ship’s plan,” which can usually 
be accomplished by applying to a steamship comp¬ 
any, with whom you are acquainted, and noting the 
position of tanks, coal, and cargo compartments, 
deadweight scale, measurements and other particu¬ 
lars, you will be better able to understand the in¬ 
formation contained in this article. 


WATER BALLAST 

In nearly all modern steamers provision is made 
for carrying water ballast, either in double bottom 
tanks, or deep tanks, the latter being a small por¬ 
tion of the hold partitioned off and specially con¬ 
structed to hold water. 


DOUBLE BOTTOM TANKS 

Steamers have a double-bottom primarily to lessen 
the danger caused by accident, for if the outer plates 
are pierced, and the inner ones remain intact, 
should the vessel be carrying perishable cargo it 
would not be damaged. 

This intermediate or for the greater part useless 
bilge space is divided into tanks, which can be 
filled with “water ballast” or pumped dry according 
to circumstances. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


205 


DEEP TANKS 

Tnere are two types of deep tank; those placed 
amidships for the purpose of sinking the vessel 
bodily in the water, so that her weatherly and 
navigable qualities may be maintained at sea, and 
the trimming tanKs placed at the bow or stern, 
termed respecting the “fore peak” and “after 
peak” tank, wnich serves the same purpose but 
also admits of the trim being adjusted, so as to 
secure an even keel should the cargo stowage or 
consumption of coal during tne voyage cause an un¬ 
desirable departure therefrom, or to increase the 
immersion of the propellor should the vessel be 
light, or to secure by an even trim, a smaller mean 
draft when crossing a bar, entering shallow harbors 
or docks. 


USE OF PEAK TANKS 

Nearly all modern steamers have an after peak 
tank, because ballast at the stern is particularly 
useful in securing immersion of the propeller when 
light; not so many have a fore peak tank. 

DEEP TANKS 

Midship deep tanks are sometimes fitted as a 
substitute for a double bottom, but as a rule they 
are fitted in conjunction with them, the deep tank 
over the double bottom. 

Deep tanks are better for buoyancy than the 
double bottom tanks, in that the center of gravity 
of the water they contain is fairly high, much the 
same as that of ordinary cargo. They occupy valu¬ 
able hold space but large watertight hatchways are 
provided so that they may also be available for 
cargo. When thus adapted the tank is included in 
the tonnage measurement, otherwise it may not be. 




206 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


In order that it may be used for lumber, general 
cargo, or bunker coals, a deep tank should be long; 
as now adopted they are often so large as to contain 
upwards of 200,000 feet board measure. 

The midship deep tank is usually placed im¬ 
mediately forward or abaft of the machinery space, 
or if there are two, one before and one abaft it. 


FILLING BALLAST TANKS 

Ballast tanks are filled through their suction 
pipes. For this purpose a flooding pipe is led from 
the valve chest to a sea cock in the vessels bilge in 
the engine room; when the cock is opened the chest 
fills with sea water, so that any tank may be filled 
by simply opening its particular valves in the chest. 
In high class vessels separate chests are provided 
for the bilge and ballast suctions; in ordinary cargo 
vessels the same chests are very commonly made to 
serve both purposes; in which case, to prevent sea 
water from flowing into the holds, the bilge suction 
valves must be of the non return type. The sea 
cocks in the engine room are fixed well up on the 
vessel’s bilge, for if placed below the bilge they 
might be submerged in bilge water and inaccessible, 
and, when filling the tanks in harbor, quantities of 
mud might enter. The bilge, moreover, is an ad¬ 
vantageous position in that the valve—of brittle 
cast-iron—is not exposed to local pressures from 
contact with piling or a rocky bottom. 


FILLING DOUBLE BOTTOM TANKS 

If the double bottom tanks are filled when the 
vessel is floating light in the usual way, by opening 
a valve, the speed of inflow of the water is slow, and 
more particulary when it has to pass through valve 
chests and long lengths of piping. A long 5-inch 
pipe, for instance, lying 15 feet below the surface, 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


207 


would pass little more than 200 tons per hour. In 
large vessels, whose double bottom tanks may be 
very capacious (in a vessel 400 to 500 feet long, they 
may contain 1800 tons) and where it is destined to 
fill them quickly, it is usual so to arrange the bal¬ 
last pump that it may discharge into them from the 
sea, for water may be forced by a powerful pump 
through long and circuitous piping much faster than 
it would flow through them if impelled only by the 
force of gravity. 

FILLING DEEP TANKS 

A deep ballast tank which extends above the light 
waterline cannot be filled by gravity, that is, through 
an open valve; it must he pumped up. This is done 
simply by reversing the flow through the ballast 
pump, causing it to draw from the sea and dis¬ 
charge into the tank. And even though the top 
of a deep tank may be below the light water-line, 
provision is usually made for filling it through the 
pumps, for if filled by gravity, the rate of filling as 
the water rose in the tank near to the sea level 
would be slow. 

FILLING PEAK TANKS 

Peak tanks and others in which fresh water is 
carried are filled from the deck by a hose, through 
the sounding or air pipes. 


BALLAST PUMPS 

In small vessels the tanks are emptied by the 
donkey pump. Large vessels have a special ballast 
pump, the donkey, of course, being also available. 
Ballast pumps vary greatly in power; when of 
ordinary capacity they may pass 60 tons of water 
per hour, hut some may deal with as much as 300 
tons. 



208 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


LINING OF TANKS 

The interiors of double bottom tanks are usually 
lined with a layer of cement as a protection against 
corrosion. Oil paint is inadmissable, because, apart 
from the damp surroundings the fumes from the 
paint would asphyxiate the men. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE SUCTION 

In a large flat double bottom tank, a center-line 
and side or wing suctions are fitted. The latter 
are for emptying the tank when the vessel has a 
list, for as the water sinks in the tank during the 
pumping, it may flow to one side and heel the ship; 
as they are regarded as auxiliary, they are usually 
of smaller diameter than the center line suction. 
If there is a good rise of floor, as in the end tank, 
wing suctions are dispensed with. In tanks which 
are divided by a fore and aft central division, one 
suction is fitted in each half. Ballast suctions vary 
greatly in diameter; from 2 inches in small vessels 
to 4 inches in large ones, is perhaps the ordinary 
practice, but in large vessels where rapidity in fill¬ 
ing and emptying the tanks is desired they may be 
six inches in diameter. As ordinarily arranged two 
or more valve chests are provided for the forward 
and for the after tanks, which permits of one set of 
tanks being filled while another is emptied. 

AIR PIPES 

In order that the ballast tanks may be filled quite 
full, provision must be made for the escape of the 
contained air, otherwise, of course, the water would 
not rise. For this purpose air pipes are led from 
the tank top, usually to the upper deck, where should 
water over flow, it would do no harm. 

Air . pipes should be placed at the highest point 
of the tank top. In a large tank with a flat top. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


209 


there should he one at each corner; in many cases 
there are only two, which may be placed at the 
forward end, or one at each end, the one to port 
and the other to starboard; but this, of course, is not 
sufficient to insure the complete filling of the tank, 
for if the vessel should have a list and trim by the 
bow or stern, an air cushion may form at either of 
the other corners. As air can escape through a pipe 
more readily than water, a single air pipe might be 
smaller than a single filling pipe. In filling a tank, 
however, the water when it is nearly full, is apt to 
blow up the air pipes and choke them as regards 
the passage of air; consequently large air pipes are 
desirable. 

The sizes adopted in practice vary considerably; 
from 1| to 2 inches is common, but in large vessels 
they may be 3 or even 4 inches diameter. 

In tanks which may be pumped up, the air pipes 
should be as large as the filling pipe, for immediate¬ 
ly such a tank becomes full the pump may force 
the water up the air pipes, and if these are small, 
the resistance offered may cause a considerable 
bursting pressure in the tank. It is also very im¬ 
portant in such cases, that the air pipes should be 
permanently open; if closed on the upper deck with 
screwed plugs, the omission to open them when the 
tank is being pumped up might have serious re¬ 
sults; cases have occurred where a tank top has 
actually burst under the excessive hydrostatic pres¬ 
sure of the pumps. And, similarly in emptying the 
tank, if the air pipes were closed, a vacuum would 
be formed within the tank tending to collapse the 
top—a serious matter in case of a deep tank whose 
top is supported by long flexible beams. 


SOUNDING TUBES 

Sounding tubes or pipes are fitted to all cargo 
holds, peaks and ballast tanks, for the purpose of 



210 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


ascertaining the depth of water in the compartments 
Soundings are taken by passing a rod 3 or 4 feet 
long, with cord attached, down the pipes, and on 
its withdrawal noting how much of it has become 
wet. 

When stowing lumber on a vessel's deck, care 
should be taken that the sounding tubes are not 
covered up. 

THE TELL TALE PIPE 

In order that the engineer, whose duty it is to 
fill and empty the tanks, may know when they are 
full without going on deck to take soundings, the 
sounding pipes of the tanks abaft the boiler room 
bulkhead sometimes terminate (with a screwed 
plug) within the machinery space or tunnel. And 
in high class vessels it is common to lead a small 
tell tale pipe (about one inch in diameter) from each 
tanK to the machinery space, each pipe terminating 
with a cock just above the platforms so that when 
opened, an outflow of water may announce when 
the tank is full. 

The foregoing information relating to water ballast 
tanks is taken from “Practical Shipbuilding” by 
A. Campbell Holmes, surveyor to Lloyds register of 
shipping. 


EXPLANATION OF THE LOAD LINE 

The circular disc prescribed by section 438 of the 
British Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, shall be 12 
inches in diameter, with a horizontal line 18 inches 
in length and drawn through its center. The disc 
shall be marked amidships on each side of the ship, 
the position of its center being placed at such level 
as is specified in the Board of Trade certificate of 
approval. 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


211 


The lines to be used in connection with the disc in 
order to indicate the maximum load-line under dif¬ 
ferent circumstances and at different seasons shall 
be horizontal lines 9 inches in length and 1 inch in 
thickness, extending from and at right angles to a 
vertical line marked 21 inches forward of the center 
of the disc. 

The maximum load-line in fresh water shall he 
marked abaft such vertical line, and the maximum 
load-line in salt water shall be marked forward of 
sucn vertical line, as shown in the diagrams herein¬ 
after mentioned. 


Diagram Showing Load Line (Plimsoll Mark). 



Sailing Ship. 


Such maximum load-lines shall he as follows, and 
the upper edge of such lines shall respectively 
indicate: 



212 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


For fresh water: The maximum depth, to which 
the vessel can he loaded in fresh water. 

For Indian summer: The maximum depth to which 
the vessel can be loaded for voyages during the fine 
season in the Indian seas, between the limits of 
Suez and Singapore. 

For summer: The maximum depth to which the 
vessel can be loaded for voyages (other than Indian 
summer voyages) from European and Mediterranean 
ports between the months of April and Sept., both 
inclusive, and as to voyages in other parts of the 
world (other than Indian summer voyages) the maxi¬ 
mum depth to which the vessel can be loaded during 
the corresponding or recognized summer months. 

For winter: The maximum depth to which the 
vessel can be loaded for voyages (other than Indian 
summer voyages, and summer voyages) from 
European and Mediterranean ports between the 
months of October and March, both inclusive, and as 
to voyages in other parts of the world, the maximum 
depth to which the vessel can be loaded during the 
corresponding or recognized winter months. 

For winter North Atlantic) The maximum depth 
to which the vessel can be loaded for voyages to, or 
from, the Mediterranean, or any European port, from, 
or to, ports in British North America, or eastern 
ports in the United States, north of Cape Hatteras, 
between the months of Oct. and March, both inclu¬ 
sive. 

Such maximum load-lines shall be distinguished 
by initial letters conspicuously marked opposite each 
horizontal line as aforesaid, such initial letters being 
as follows: 

F. W.—Fresh Water. 

W.—Winter. 

I. S.—Indian Summer. 

W. N. A.—Winter N. Atlantic. 

S.—Summer. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


213 


The upper edge of the horizontal line passing 
through the center of the disc shall always indicate 
the summer load-line in salt water. The relative 
positions of the upper edges of the other lines to be 
used in connection with the disc, with the upper 
edge of the line passing through the center of the 
disc (the maximum summer load-line), will be indi¬ 
cated in the certificate of approval. 

The managing owner or master must cause the 
load-line certificate to be framed and put up in some 
conspicuous part of the ship so as to be visible to all 
persons on board the same. Without such a free¬ 
board certificate a British vessel cannot enter out¬ 
wards from any port in the United Kingdom. 

The Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, gave the Board 
of Trade power to modify the freeboard tables. 
Revised tables were issued in March, 1906, and 
pursuant to the new tables the load-lines of many 
vessels have been raised. 


TAKING THE DRAFT 

Before vessel commences to load the super¬ 
cargo should make a note of the draft, and take a 
copy of the record on the sounding board, he should 
do the same thing every day thereafter before start¬ 
ing work, at noon, and quitting time. If he should 
notice any variation in draft, that would not cor¬ 
respond with the weight of lumber loaded, and the 
Sounding board shows no alteration, ascertain if 
possible from the ship’s officers, if orders have been 
given to “run up” a tank, you will generally be told 
the truth, but there are times when you may be 
misinformed through some of the officers not being- 
aware of the exact state of affairs. Under suspici¬ 
ous circumstances keep your own council, and if 
future events show that conditions are being 
deliberately misrepresented you will have the ad¬ 
vantage of being forewarned, and can therefore 
govern yourself accordingly. 



214 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


REMOVING STANCHIONS 

As soon as possible make a note of the way 
stanchions are placed in the upper or lower holds, 
should one or more seriously interfere with the 
loading or proper stowage of cargo, or long timbers 
cannot be stowed with their orders, on account of 
the position in which they are placed, consult the 
master of the vessel in reference to cutting them 
out. It is customary to do so unless they dangerous¬ 
ly weaken the part of the vessel from which they 
are removed. 


CAPACITY ACCORDING TO DISPLACEMENT 

To determine the balance of cargo a vessel can 
carry at different stages of loading, it is necessary 
to ascertain the number of tons that equal one inch 
displacement. 

This can be obtained from the officers, or by 
referring to the deadweight scale given in the ship’s 
plan. 

The scale gradually increases slightly over one 
ton from the time the vessel is light till she is about 
finished under deck, for instance, a vessel when 
light that displaces 38 tons, would displace about 
39.3 when finished under deck, from this time on 
there is a slight decrease in displacement till vessel 
approaches the load line when the scale would 
probably equal 39 tons to the inch. 


DRAFT BEFORE AND AFTER COALING 

Carefully take draft before and after coaling, and 
figure the number of tons displaced by the coal 
according to exact figures given on ship’s plan, this 
serves as a check on the number of tons delivered 
on board. 






THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


215 


COALING 

To save time steamers are often coaled on Sunday, 
and in cases where lumber is being delivered by 
lighters, they can often be worked on that day to 
expedite dispatch. 

CUBICAL MEASUREMENT OF COAL 

Anthracite, 41 to 45 cubic ft.=rl ton broken. 

Bituminous, Welsh, 43 cubic ft.=l ton. 

Bituminous, Lancashire, 44 cubic ft.=l ton. 

Bituminous, Newcastle, 45 cubic ft.=l ton. 

Bituminous, Scotch, 43 cubic ft.=l ton. 

' Nanaimo & Comox, B. C., 44 to 45 cubic ft.z=l ton. 
■ Tacoma, Wash., 39 cubic ft.—1 ton. 

Run of mine. 


ERRORS OF CAPACITY 
COAL 

In figuring on a steamer’s capacity remember that 
the amount of coal necessary for a voyage varies 
considerably according to the distance between 
ports, so guard against the error caused by a com¬ 
mon supposition that if a vessel carries a stipulated 
amount of lumber to one country she can carry it 
to another. As an instance, I may cite that a 
steamer requiring 1,000 tons of coal to steam from 
Port Townsend to Sidney, Australia, would only 
need about 850 tons to steam to Yokohama, Japan. 
This would make a difference in the deadweight 
carrying capacity of 150 tons or the equivalent of 
100,000 board feet of lumber. 

TO FIGURE LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY 

To compute the lumber carrying capacity of a 
steamer, ascertain from the builder’s plan the 
cubical capacity (bale space) of the various com- 





216 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


partments 'and multiply them by eight; the result 
wni be the capacity in board feet. 


VESSELS 7 LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY IN 
PROPORTION TO NET REGISTERED 
TONNAGE 


Schooners. Sail . 150% 

Schooners, Steam, old style . 150% 

Schooners, Steam, modern . 180% 

Wooden Ships . 75% 

Iron Ships .... 85% 

Steel Ships . 90% 

Steamers, old style . 100% 

Steamers, modern . 125% 

Steamers, Turret . 150% 


When figuring a vessel’s lumber carrying capacity 
by above method, multiply tonnage by percentage 
given and to the result add three ciphers and the 
answer will show the approximate amount of lumber 
the vessel should carry when loaded. 


CAPACITY ACCORDING TO DRAFT 

The next question to be considered is: Has the 
vessel coaled? If not, how many tons is she going 
to take, also stores, fresh water for boilers, or 
galley? Make allowance according to circumstances, 
and use the following method to compute the lumber 
carrying capacity of a steamer. 

Example: How many feet board measure of 

Douglas Fir can a steamer carry, that has coaled, 
taken on stores and fresh water for the voyage, 
when particulars as follows are known: 

Draft Forward, 17 feet 10 inches. 

Draft Aft, 18 feet 2 inches. 

Load draft, 23 feet 0 in. 

Displaces 39 tons to the inch. 












THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


217 


Operation: 

Draft Forward, 17 feet 10 inches. 

Draft “Aft,” 18 feet 2 inches. 

Added together, equals 36 feet 0 inches. 

Divided by 2, equals 18 feet 0 inches, or Mean 
Draft. 

23 feet equals Load Draft. 

18 feet equals Mean Draft. 

5 feet equals Difference between Load and Mean 
Draft. 

Explanation: By adding the forward draft (17 ft. 
10 ins.) and Draft “Aft” (18 ft. 2 ins.) together, and 
dividing results (36) by 2, we obtain the mean draft 
(18 ft.) The next process is to subtract the mean 
draft (18 ft.) from the load draft (23 ft.), this 
leaves a difference of 5 ft. or 60 inches. 

Now as vessel carries 39 tons to the inch, multiply 
this amount by the inches (60) and you will have 
the total number of tons the vessel can carry from 
this stage till she is down to her marks. 

To find the number of feet in a given number of 
tons, multiply tons by 2 and divide by 3 and to the 
result add three ciphers. 

Example: How many feet board measure can a 
steamer carry, that displaces 39 tons to the inch, 
and the difference between the load draft and mean 
draft is 60 inches. 

Operation: 

39 tons. 

60 inches. 


2340 equals total tons. 
2 




218 THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


3)4680 


1560 

000 (3 ciphers added.) 


1560000 feet board measure. Answer. 

DENSITY OF WATER AND COAL CONSUMPTION 

When figuring on a vessels’ draft allowance must 
be made for density of water, that is, the difference 
in weight between fresh and salt water, also con¬ 
sumption of coal on inland waters. The usual 
method employed is to add to draft at load line one 
or two inches according to circumstances. 

IMMERSION IN SALT AND FRESH WATER 

To find the difference of immersion or draft in salt 
and fresh water: If from salt to fresh, multiply the 
draft of salt wate'r by 36, and divide the product by 
35. If from fresh to salt, multiply the draft of fresh 
water by 35 and divide the product by 36. 

Example: Required the draft of a vessel in fresh 
water when drawing 20 ft. in salt water: 

20 ft. X 36 = 720 -f- 35 — 20 ft. 7 in. 


SEA WATER, MEASUREMENT AND WEIGHT 

1 cubic foot at 62 F., equals 64 pounds. 

1 ton (long) equals 35 cubic feet. 

Ratio of weight of fresh water to that of sea 
water, 39 to 40, or 1 to 1.028. 

TAKING DRAFT WHEN LOAD-LINE IS 
SUBMERGED 


In cases where a steamer is about loaded, and it is 
necessary to ascertain her exact draft, under cir- 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


219 


cumstances where the vessel, has such a list, that 
her load-line on one side is under water, proceed as 
follows: 

Measure the length in inches from the upper 
edge of the mark indicating the top of the statuary- 
deck line to the upper edge of the horizontal line 
passing through the disc or load-line allowed ac¬ 
cording to the time of year. This will be the vessels’ 
freeboard when down to her load draft. 

Now measure the length in inches on both sides 
of the vessel from the line of floatation to the upper 
edge of bar indicating the statuary deck line, 
divide this by 2 and from the amount subtract the 
vessel’s freeboard when down to her load draft, the 
result will show the number of inches required to 
bring the vessel to her marks. 

Example: Find exact draft of a vessel under the 
following conditions: 

Distance between statuary deck line and load- 
line is 60 inches. 

Distance between statuary deck line and line of 
floatation on the starboard side is 64 inches. 

Distance between statuary deck line and line of 
floatation on the port side is 58 inches. 

Operation: Add together starboard (64) and port 
(58) side: 

64 

58 


Divide by 2)122 


61 

Subtract 60 (load-line freeboard.) 

1 inch required to bring vessel 
down to her marks. 





220 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


REGULATING BALLAST DURING LOADING 

During the loading of a steamer with lumber, the 
question arises as to the best method of regulating 
the water ballast, so that the vessel can carry a 
good cargo without endangering her stability. 

If the steamer has never carried lumber before, 
and has a wide beam or other indications which 
would class her as a good lumber carrier, the cor¬ 
rect way of loading this vessel would be as follows: 
When lower hold is finished, the ballast tanks should 
be pumped dry, and then left alone during the time 
the steamer is loading. Should the vessel show 
signs of being tender, which is liable to occur to¬ 
wards the latter part of loading, a tank should be 
“run up” with the idea of increasing the vessel’s 
stability. Calculations must now he made as to the 
amount of lumber that will he displaced by filling 
the tank, and in case there is sufficient margin for 
additional cargo, the work of loading should con¬ 
tinue till there are fresh indications of tenderness, or 
until the vessel is down to her load-line. 

THE TIME TO FILL TANKS 

When a vessel shows signs of tenderness during 
the progress of loading and it is necessary to “run 
up” (fill) one or more ballast tanks, if possible do 
so during the night or at a time when the cargo is 
not being worked. The reason for this is that a 
sudden rush of slack water in the tanks might cause 
the vessel to suddenly list, thus endangering the 
lives of those engaged in stowing the cargo, through 
tiers of lumber falling down or swinging loads get¬ 
ting beyond control of the winch drivers. 

When it is necessary to fill a tank under circum¬ 
stances where vessel has a high deckload, as a pre¬ 
cautionary measure securely lash it, to guard against 
accident should steamer take a dangerous list. 

DANGEROUS LISTS 

If a steamer lists badly during the loading of the 
deckload, take precautions against bringing her over 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


221 


except by very slow and gradual degrees. If more 
lumber is piled on the side opposite to that which 
has the list, as soon as the center of gravity is 
changed the vessel is liable to quickly flop over to 
the other side, the action is accelerated if there is 
slack water in the tanks, the sudden movement often 
causes the tiers of lumber to permanently incline 
to the side with the heavy list, and the added weight 
is liable to break the stanchions, thus releasing the 
deckload and causing further trouble. 

TO ASCERTAIN THE DEGREES OF LIST 

If the vessel is listing you can find out the exact 
number of degrees by going on the bridge and con¬ 
sulting the clinometer, which is usually attached to 
the frame holding the compass. 

When ascertaining the draft of a vessel that is 
not upright, make an allowance for the diffenrence 
occasioned by the list. If the draft is taken from 
the low side add about half an inch for a ten degree 
list. If taken from the high side subtract a like 
amount. 


TO ASCERTAIN VESSELS’ STABILITY 

Place your back to vessel’s rail amidship’s and 
take a sighting point across the opposite rail to a 
mark on the wharf at which steamer is loading, now 
when a load is being hauled on board the slightest 
movement can be noted across the line of vision. 

SHORT STOWAGE 

Notify the mill company how you want orders 
placed on wharf for loading. If pickets, lath, door 
stock, or short lengths can be placed so that they 
can be conveniently loaded in bridge space or hatch 
coamings, it will be of great assistance and advantage 


222 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


in cases where quick handling and good stowing 
count. 

Let the mill know what time you will be at the 
dock, the number of tallymen you will require and 
the orders you will start on so that a sufficient 
quantity of fillers (tally books) can be made out, and 
c 3 stamps in readiness. 

GETTING UP STEAM 

When it is necessary for a steamer to move from 
one wharf to another under her own power see that 
the chief engineer is notified in plenty of time to 
get up steam. 


THE PILOT 

If a pilot is required he should be informed in 
advance, otherwise delays might be caused. Notify 
the pilot whether you want to make a port or star¬ 
board landing and arrange to have a launch or neces¬ 
sary men to cast off or take the mooring lines. 

STANCHIONS FOR DECKLOAD 

Stanchions used for security of the deckload, and 
taken out of sizes that are tallied as cargo should 
not be charged to the ship. When stanchions of 
suitable size, length, and grade cannot be obtained 
from cargo;; it is customary to order them from 
the mill company, and in this case they are charged 
to the ship’s account. 

To guard against delay order stanchions in plenty 
of time. The ideal sizes for vessels of about 3000 
net reg. tonnage are 6x12 or 8x10—18 feet in length, 
of a merchantable grade. When ordering if you 
want half the number of stanchions to be delivered 
to forward end of deckload, and the balance “aft./’ 
notify the mill company to that effect. 




THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 223 


It is customary for the ship’s crew to put stanch¬ 
ions in position according to directions of the 
stevedore preparatory to starting the deckload. 

WEDGES 

During the progress of loading lumber under deck, 
as the tiers are completed, wedges are inserted and 
driven tight between the top of the tiers and the 
beams, this is done with the idea of alleviating the 
stress on the beams caused by the weight of the 
deckload. Wedges of a desired length can be ob¬ 
tained at most saw mills at a nominal cost, they are 
made from a 3x4 or 4x4 about 16 inches long, ac¬ 
cording to requirements. They are usually cut on 
a hand trimmer and sawn diagonally from corner to 
corner, one piece making two wedges. It is the duty 
of the ship’s carpenter or his helpers to drive in 
the wedges as the lumber handlers finish the tiers 
in the vessel’s hold. 

COMPLEMENT OF A GANG OF LONGSHOREMEN 

A full gang of longshoremen is comprised as fol¬ 
lows: One hatch-tender, two winch drivers, two 

side runners, six men on board stowing cargo ( in 
hold or on deck) and four men making up sling 
loads of lumber, either on wharf or lighter. 

It is customary to have one gang for every hatch 
that is to be worked. The hatch tender is the head 
man in the gang, and one side runner looks after 
the stowage on the port side and the other side 
runner the starboard side. The gang or gangs are 
in full charge of the stevedore foreman. A short 
gang is reduced by a total of four men, as follows: 
two men on board, and two men making up sling 
loads. 

Under ordinary circumstances a full gang works 
to better advantage than a short one, for the fol- 



224 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


lowing reason: Circumstances occur when four 
men are slinging, that they make up loads quicker 
than they can be handled on board, the result is 
that one or both pairs of men may have a short 
wait, but the balance of the gang or eleven men 
will be working all the time. 

In the short gang two men rarely make up the 
loads as fast as they can be stowed away, and the 
consequence is that two men are over-worked, and 
nine men are continually waiting. 

It is self evident that better results can be ob¬ 
tained with a full gang than a short one, as it is 
preferable to have the small number of men slinging 
wait than the majority who are employed to stow 
the cargo. 

Steamers usually work two or three gangs, and 
seldom more than four. 

Two good men slinging lumber will average about 
5000 board feet per hour. 

It is customary for one lumber inspector to tally 
for two men making up loads. 

RECORD OF CARGO STOWAGE 

Just before an order is about to be finished, notify 
the ship’s officer in charge to arrange to have it 
marked off when completed. 

Keep a record in diagram form showing marks, 
and in which compartment the order is stowed. 

When cargo is completed, make out a diagram, 
showing marks, kind of lumber and destination or 
other chief particulars which will be of assistance 
in distinguishing orders at port of discharge. 

The chief officer usually keeps a stowage record, 
but where the orders are complicated, if you furnish 
him with details or a copy of the diagram, you will 
render him a service which should be greatly ap¬ 
preciated. 





THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


225 



The diagram shows the transverse section of one 
of the compartments in a cargo steamer’s hold. It 
is superior to the ordinary or longitudinal plan as 
it plainly shows at a glance the exact way the lum¬ 
ber is stowed, thus enabling the consignee or steve¬ 
dore to locate the orders and discharge them to best 
advantage. 
























226 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


USE CARE WHEN MARKING OFF ORDERS 

Care should be exercised when marking off orders, 
such as clear grades or surfaced lumber. Don’t 
make the paint mark too wide or the identification 
lines too close, also see that the paint is not too 
thin, if it is it will run between the edges and stain 
the underneath side of lumber. 

Careless or improper marking is the cause of 
much confusion and many complaints. 

Rope yarn or burlap is often used as a method of 
separating dressed or costly lumber which would 
be damaged by paint. 


CINDER STAINED LUMBER 

Protest against allowing cinder stained lumber to 
be shipped. If the lumber is dry the cinders can be 
swept off with a broom, but if it is wet a broom 
should not be used as it would only cause further 
damage. In this case the cinders should be washed 
off with a hose as each load is made up. 


COUNTING PIECES 

When loading at a mill company’s wharf in British 
Columbia, Washington or Oregon, it is neither neces¬ 
sary or customary for the ship’s officers to count 
pieces, and when they do so, it usually amounts to 
nothing more or less than a farce and inconvenience. 
The Bureau Inspectors (tallymen) have no screws 
on them, and though they might possibly miss a 
small piece occasionally the chances are very re¬ 
mote for them to tally the same piece twice. Lumber 
delivered by rail road cars and especially lighters 
should be counted to guard against possible loss in 
transit. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


227 


SHIPPING MARKS 

When several orders are shipped on one vessel 
for the same port, each is usually stamped on end 
with a distinguishing mark, for instance: 

Order No. 1 stamped on end H. S. M. 

Order No. 2 stamped on end J. J. M. 

Order No. 3 stamped on end A. T. Co. 

Order No. 4 stamped on end B. & Co. 

Order No. 5 stamped on end W. R. G. 

Order No. 6 stamped on end N E A M E. 

Order No. 7 (NO MARK). 

When vessels arrive at destination the lumber is 
discharged and piled on wharf. The marks are kept 
separate, and each consignee claims the lumber 
stamped with his mark. All lumber without a mark 
will be claimed by consignee of Order No. 7, espe¬ 
cially when the sizes are the same as contained in 
his specification. 

Lumber inspectors, cargo tallymen and others con¬ 
cerned should see that all lumber is correctly stamp¬ 
ed according to orders. 

When there are several consignments for the same 
vessel, every order should have a distinguishing 
mark to guard against a consignee who has none 
claiming what does not belong to him. 

When orders are intended to he discharged at dif¬ 
ferent ports the same plan of marking is used. It 
is also customary to line off the orders in vessels’ 
hold or deck with paint or rope yarn. 

When lumber is stamped on end it often deters 
persons from sawing long lengths to make two 
pieces; this is resorted to during transit of cargo, 
the surplus lumber is appropriated and, though the 
number of pieces may correspond with Bill fo Land¬ 
ing, orders are frequently spoiled, resulting in great 
inconvenience and loss through this unscrupulous 
practice. 



228 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


In reference to the foregoing some mills stamp 
both ends of the lumber, one with order mark and 
the other shipper’s mark. 


MARKING AHEAD 

Those responsible for marking lumber should see 
that too much is not marked ahead, the stampers 
are in the habit of doing this so that they can 
take a recess. As sizes often exceed the quantity 
specified, the over-run amounts are rejected but can 
often be applied on another order, hence the reason 
for not stamping ahead, for when the wrong mark 
is not properly obliterated, or another mark is 
stamped on top of it, the result is endless confusion 
at port of discharge. 


CUSTOMS REGULATIONS 

As there is so much lumber manufactured for 
export in the Province of British Columbia, Canada, 
and the States of Washington, Oregon and Califor¬ 
nia, and as the shipping business is so closely allied 
with the lumber manufacturing industry, the writer 
believes that the following general information can 
properly be included in a book of this nature. 


CUSTOMS REGULATIONS REGARDING VESSELS 
COMING FROM FOREIGN PORTS LOADING 
AT BRITISH COLUMBIA PORTS 

Vessels coming to British Columbia from Foreign 
ports, except when coming from United States ports 
with consular Bill of Health, must first pass quaran¬ 
tine before proceeding to port of loading at Wil¬ 
liams Head, near Victoria, B. C. A rate is charged 
on the net registered tonnage of the vessel by the 
custom house authorities for a fund known as the 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


229 


“Sick Mariners’ Fund.” Foreign vessels also have 
to pay Harbor dues in addition to the fees for enter¬ 
ing and clearing. 


CUSTOMS REGULATIONS REGARDING VESSELS 

COMING FROM FOREIGN PORTS LOADING 
AT UNITED STATES PORTS 

Vessels coming to the United States from Foreign 
ports must first pass quarantine, unless coming 
from contingent ports, such as British Columbia 
ports. Vessels coming to San Francisco Bay from 
Foreign ports must first pass quarantine at San 
Francisco; vessels coming to Humboldt Bay from 
Foreign ports must first pass quarantine at Eureka; 
vessels coming to Portland or ports on the Columbia 
River from Foreign ports must first pass quarantine 
at the quarantine station near Astoria; vessels com¬ 
ing to Willapa Harbor from Foreign ports must first 
pass quarantine at South Bend; vessels coming 
from Foreign ports to Grays Harbor must first pass 
quarantine at Hoquiam; vessels coming from Foreign 
ports to Puget Sound must first pass quarantine at 
Port Townsend. However, vessels coming from Brit¬ 
ish Columbia ports do not have to pass quarantine 
when coming to contingent ports in the United 
States. All Foreign ships coming to United States 
ports have to pay tonnage dues, the charge being 
made on the American net tonnage of the vessel. 
Customs fees also have to be paid for entering and 
clearing. There is some reduction in tonnage dues 
against a vess 1 when she comes from British Colum¬ 
bia ports. 



230 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


SILOS 


A silo is an air-tight structure used for the 
preservation of green coarse fodder, in a succulent 
condition. It has come to stay, and in a compara¬ 
tively few years of its use has demonstrated with¬ 
out the shadow of a doubt that it is the most 
profitable investment that can be made by any 
farmer who feeds stock. It will turn green corn 
into gold dollars, and is doing so every day, upon 
thousands of farms in the United States and Can¬ 
ada. Generally speaking, stave silos are similar to 
large railroad or fermentation tanks, and to give 
satisfaction should be constructed as well as a 
number one water tank. 

STAVE SILOS 

The Stave Silo is the simplest type of separate 
silo buildings, and partly for this reason and partly 
on account of its cheapness of construction, more 
silos of this kind have been built during the past 
few years^ than any other Silo type. Since their 
first introduction, Stave Silos have been favorably 
mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics, 
as well as by Experiment Station men. 

In the recent bulletin from Cornell Experiment 
Station, we find the Stave Silo spoken of as “the 
most practical and successful silo which can be 
constructed,” and the Ottawa Experiment Station is 
on record for the following statement in regal’d to 
the Stave Silo: “From extensive observation and 
study of Silps, and Silo construction, and from ex¬ 
perience here with a number of different Silos, it 
would appear that the Stave Silo is the form of 
cheap Silo, that for various reasons is most worthy 
of recommendation. It combines simplicity and 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


231 



Stave Silo on Stone Foundation 



























































232 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


cheapness of construction with the requisite con¬ 
ditions to preserve the silage in the very best state 
for feeding.’ 

Why Stave Silos Have Become Numerous 

The main reasons why Stave Silos have been 
preferred by the majority of farmers during late 
years are that they can be put up easily, quickly 
and cheaply, and the expense for a moderate sized 
Silo is comparatively small. Many a farmer has 
built a Stave Silo who could not afford to build a 
high-priced Silo, and others have preferred to build 
two small Silos for one large one, or a small one 
in addition to an old, larger one that they may 
already have. Manufacturing firms have, further¬ 
more, made a specialty of stave-silo construction, 
and pushed the sale of such Silos through adver¬ 
tisements and neat circulars. Having made a special 
business of the building of Stave Silos, and having 
had several years’ experience as to the require¬ 
ments and precautions to be observed in building 
such Silos, these firms furnish Silos complete with 
all necessary fixtures, that are greatly superior to 
any which a farmer would be apt to build accord¬ 
ing to more or less incomplete directions. 

It follows that the Stave Silos sent out by manu¬ 
facturing firms will generally be more expensive 
than such a farmer can build himself, because they 
are built better. It does not pay to build a poor 
Silo, however, except to bridge over an emergency. 
Poor, cheap Silos are a constant source of annoy¬ 
ance, expense and trouble, whether built square, 
rectangular or round. If a farmer cannot afford to 
build a permanent good silo, he is not necessarily 
barred from the advantages of having silage for 
his stock, since a temporary Silo may be built at a 
small cash outlay. 

It can therefore be consistently recommended that 
parties intending to build Stave Silos patronize the 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


233 


manufacturers who have made Silo construction a 
special business. These firms furnish all necessary 
Silo fittings, with complete directions for putting 
up the Silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to 
superintend their building. 


Depth of Silo 

Depth is essential in building a Silo, so as to 
have the siloed fodder under considerable pressure, 
which will cause it to pack well and leave as 
little air as possible in the interstices between the 
cut fodder, thus reducing the losses of food mater¬ 
ials to a minimum. 


Inside Surface 

The inside of the Silo must be reasonably smooth 
to permit silage to settle freely. If the walls are 
not smooth, or if there are shoulders or offsets on 
the inside surface, air pockets will he formed and 
considerable loss of silage will result. 


Size and Length of Silo Staves 

The standard size of Douglas Fir Silo Staves is 
2x6 inches in the rough, varying in length from 10 
to 40 feet. There is a great demand for lengths 
running from 26 to 32 feet, and mill men should 
endeavor to have specifications altered so that they 
will read 24 to 40 feet long, instead of the usual 
26 to 40 feet, and manufacturers should urge the 
construction of Silos requiring 24-foot staves in 
preference to the 26-foot lengths. 

The reason for the foregoing suggestion is that a 
large number of staves are sawn from butt logs, a 
majority of which are cut 24 feet long, and logs 26 
feet are the exception. 

Though it is preferable in most cases that staves 



234 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


























































































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


235 


should be uniform in length, it is not absolutely 
necessary. For instance, a Silo that is 30 feet deep, 
staves 20 feet in length may be used. A part of 
these should be used their full length and part 
should be sawed through the middle, thus making 
staves of 20 and 10 feet lengths. In setting them 
up, the ends which meet at the splice should be 
squared and toenailed securely together. They 
should alternate so that first a long stave is at 
the bottom, then a short one, thus breaking joints 
at 10 and 20 feet from the base. 

Grade 

This is governed by contract or requirements and 
the quality of lumber mostly called for is the 
equivalent to a No. 2 Clear, vertical or slash grain, 
air or kiln dried, and occasionally selected common 
air dried only. 

The selected common grade has a percentage 
of knots in it which are liable to become loose in 
the kiln-drying operation, but when the stock is air- 
dried the knots are not liable to come out unless 
they hapen to be on the edge of the piece. 

For practical purposes, all that is necessary is 
that the pitch pockets and knots are so placed 
that they will not interfere with the lumber being 
air-tight. 

Sap 

Heavy sap should be excluded on account of its 
tendency to rot, but light sap, especially in long 
lengths, should not be considered a detriment, as a 
stave can be so placed that the sap will be on the 
exterior side and upper end of the Silo where there 
is but very slight chance of decay. 

Some Unrefutable Reasons Why Farmers Must 
Have a Silo 

First—The great saving of feed; more feeding 



236 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


value, all eaten, while with dry feed much is 
wasted and tramped under the feet into manure 
and mud. 

Second—It means a great saving in farm labor; 
the same amount of feed value is produced, har¬ 
vested and stored at a fraction of the cost. 

Third—Produces a steady flow of milk, increases 
tne cream, promotes growth. 

Fourth—Saves buying milled feed which at all 
times is expensive. 

Fifth—Most economical feed yet known because 
it puts in edible and digestible form that part of 
the feed which otherwise is lost. In other words, 
saves nine hundred million of the one billion dol¬ 
lars’ loss. 

Sixth—Saves first investment in land—80 acres 
and the silo equal 120 acres without one. 

Seventh—Saves buildings—eight tons of silage oc¬ 
cupies the space occupied by one ton in mow. Five 
pounds in mow take the space of forty pounds in 
Silo; furnishes stock pasturage all the year around 
—a veary important factor in backward springs, 
dry summers, early falls, fly times, etc. 

Eighth—Silage may be harvested and put away 
in any kind of weather. Secure full crop value in 
case of rain, drought, frost or any other unfavor¬ 
able weather condition. (United States Department 
of Agriculture Bulletin, 1912.) 

Ninth—And when put away in a well-constructed 
wooden stave Silo is absolutely secure against rain, 
snow, frost and hot weather. On the other hand, 
it is almost impossible to provide proper shelter 
for all the space dry feeds occupy; therefore, much 
good feed is left out in the weather to be damaged 
or entirely ruined, after all the expense and time 
taken to raise and harvest it. 

Tenth—When the silage is off the ground the 
fields can then be prepared for the next crop. 

Eleventh—Silage is good feed for all domestic 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


237 


animals—cattle, horses, swine, sheep, poultry—all 
do well on it the whole year around. 

Twelfth—Silage nearly doubles the feeding value 
of crops. 

Thirteenth—Farmer can raise hay to sell and 
feed the 40 per cent, loss on corn, thus enabling 
him to obtain ready cash for something which 
otherwise would cause him much labor should he 
haul and feed to cattle. 

Fourteenth—To sum up the whole situation: Ev¬ 
ery farmer needs a Silo, and needs one so con¬ 
structed as to be air-tight, non-conductive of heat, 
one which will not blow down or go to rack and 
ruin—in short, a. propertly constructed wooden fir 
stave Silo. 

Reasons for Use of Silage 

First—Harvesting corn as silage save 35 and 40 
per cent, of the crop that would otherwise be 
wasted. 

Second—Silage adds palatableness to the rations. 

Third—Silage adds succulence to the rations. 

Fourth—Silage serves to keep the digestive tracts 
of animals in good condition. 

Fifth—Silage replaces high priced hay. 

Sixth—Serves to cheapen the rations. 

Seventh—When silage is fed, more feed is eaten, 
hence more manure. 

Eighth—The man who feeds silage uses a manure 
spreader. 

Ninth—The feeding of silage means more intelli¬ 
gence in other feeding operations. 

Tenth—The feeding of silage results in more in¬ 
telligence in all farm operations. 

Eleventh—The man who feeds silage will feed 
with it concentrates, rich in protein and leguminous 
hay of some kind; hence not only more manure, 
but better quality. 



238 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Twelfth—The man who feeds concentrates and 
leguminous hays with silage, is apt to try to grow 
legumes in crop rotation; hence a better and more 
productive soil. 

Thirteenth—Silage is a good feed for the general 
farmer. 

Fourteenth—Silage is a good feed for the dairy 
cows. 

Fifteenth—Beef can be produced more economic¬ 
ally when silage forms part of the ration. 

Sixteenth—Silage is a good feed for calves, sheep 
or cattle. 

Seventeenth—Silage is a good feed for breeding 
cattle. 

Eighteenth—Silage is a good feed for fattening 
lambs. 

Nineteenth—Silage is a good feed as a part ration 
for breeding mares, if fed intelligently. 

Twentieth—Silage can be fed successfully as a 
part ration to mules. 

Twenty-first—Silage can be fed successfully as a 
part ration for horses. 

Twenty-second—Silage may be fed as a condition¬ 
er to swine in general, and as a part ration to old 
brood sows. 

Twenty-third—Silage mixed with wheat and po¬ 
tatoes, equal part, and boiled in water, makes a 
good ration for poultry. 

Twenty-fourth—Silage takes up less room in stor¬ 
age that either hay, corn or fodder. 

Twenty-fifth—Our great-grandfathers “stripped the 
corn/’ our grandfathers “topped it,” our fathers 
“cut and shocked it”; but we “silo it.” 

Twenty-sixth—A silo is a badge of honor on any 
man’s farm. 



THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


239 


Readers who require details on the foregoing 
subject should communicate with the 

SILVER MANUFACTURING CO., 

Salem, Ohio, U. S. A. 

who issue an excellent and very moderately priced 
book entitled “Modern Silage Methods," which con¬ 
tains all the necessary data of value to those inter¬ 
ested in the erection of Silos. 

THE WEYERHAEUSER LUMBER CO. 
Everett, Wash. 

also issue very valuable literature on this subject. 




240 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


LARGE SPARS 

The following clipping from the Tacoma Ledger 
serves to illustrate the immense size of Douglas Fir 
spars that can be obtained on the Pacific Coast 
when required for masts or other purposes: 

At Hall Brothers’ yards, Winslow, the Holden’s 
lower masts were stepped during this last week. 
They are immense sticks, each 110 feet, 2 inches 
in length. The mainmast has a diameter of 25 
inches, the mizzen of 24% inches and the spanker 
of 23 V 2 inches. In addition to the three lower masts 
this yard is furnishing four topmasts, each 54 feet 
6 inches long, four booms and four gaffs. The 
spanker boom is 62 feet 8 inches long and 14 inches 
in diameter while the other booms are each 41 feet 
long. It took six men 13 days to shape these spars, 
all the work being done with ax and drawknife to 
make them of the desired shape and diameter. 

SPARS FOR ATLANTIC SHIPYARDS 

The ship “Aryan,” which left Port Blakely, Wash., 
the last of May, 1911, for Boston, carried a shipment 
of what is regarded as the most valuable consign¬ 
ment of spars ever leaving the Sound. There were 
620 of the big timbers for the Oregon Mast & Spar 
Company of Boston. Quite a number went over the 
110-foot measure. She also carried a big deck load 
of square timbers, most of them 36 inches square 
and some of them seventy feet long, destined for 
use as dredger spuds. 

SPARS FOR ENGLAND 

The steamer “Saint George,” which left Tacoma, 
Wash., during June, 1911, bound for England, carried 
on her deck thirty slab’d spars, 24 inches square at 
the butt and 95 to 105 feet long. 

DOUGLAS FIR FLAG POLES 

When one-piece flag poles of extraordinary height 



_ THE PRACTICAL. LUMBERMAN 241 

are required for exhibition or other special pur¬ 
poses, the Pacific Coast forests can supply the tallest 
in the world. 

The flag pole at the entrance to the Tacoma 
Stadium is 192 feet above the ground level, and on 
gala occasions a 45x20-foot “Stars and Stripes” floats 
from the top of this gigantic mast, which is set in 
a concrete foundation 16 feet deep. 

The flag pole at Gettysburg, where General Mead 
had his headquarters, came from this Coast, and it 
still flies ‘Old Glory.” 

The flag pole at the Alaska-Yukon-Pacic Exposi¬ 
tion, Seattle, was 197 feet, and at the Portland 
Exposition, the flag poles were 212 and 220 feet long 
respectively. At Ostrander, Washington, there is 
a flag pole 216 feet in length and about 22 inches 
square at the butt. 

The dimensions of a one-piece flag pole gotten out 
by the Whitney Company of Portland, Ore., for the 
Astoria Centennial celebration are as follows: 219 
feet 3 inches tall, 36 inches in diameter at the butt 
and 15 inches at the top. This stick is Douglas Fir, 
without a single defect and was found in the woods 
of Clatsop County. 

None of these poles are equal to what could be 
obtained on the Coast, though it would be somewhat 
difficult to find them of any greater height with as 
small a diameter as those used for flag poles. 




/ 

242 THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


INDEX 

CEDAR 

Alaska Cedar—Yellow Cedar . 151 

Botanical Name . 151 

Description of the Wood and Its Use. 151 

Height and Diameter . 151 

Range . 151 

Port Orford Cedar—Dawson Cypress. 147 

Bark . 148 

Botanical Name . 147 

Cones . 148 

Description of the Wood. 150 

Distinguishing Features. 147 

Factory Lumber . 151 

Foliage . 148 

Height and Diameter. 147 

Grades . 150 

Knots . 150 

Occurrence . 149 

Range . 148 

Reproduction . 148 

Shipping Ports. 151 

Western Red Cedar. 140 

Age . 142 

Bark . 142 

Botanical Name. 140 

Butt Rot . 146 

Crook . 146 

Dead or Dry Streaks. 146 

Description of the Wood. 143 

Growth . 140 

Largest Tree on Continent. 144 

Lasting Qualities . 142 

Manufacturing Conditions . 144 

Knots. 146 

Occurrence . 140 





































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 243 


Index—Continued 

Poles . 145 

Size . 140 

Siding . 14 4 

Shingles . 45 

Shingles, Advantages of Cedar. 145 

Shingles, Estimating.45, 200 

Shingles, Weight. 46 

Specifications Adopted by the Idaho Cedar 

men’s Association. 145 

Variation in Timber Growth . 143 

FIB 

Douglas Fir . 7 

Air Dried Squares. 12 

Annual Rings, Red and Yellow Fir. 2S 

Bark . 7 

Botanical Name. 7 

Boxed Heart. 18 

Checks, Season . 12 

Checks, Why Boards Check, and Remedy. 14 

Checking, Protecting Ends From . 13 

Clears, Record Wide. 24 

Color, Red Fir. 9 

Color, Yellow Fir . 9 

Deck Plank . 19 

Deck Plank, Caulking Seams . 19 

Deck Plank, Pointers for Buyers of. 20 

Deck Plank, Seasoning . 19 

Diameter of Trees. 8 

Distinguishing Red from Yellow Fir. 9 

Distinguishing Grades, Clear . 10 

Distinguishing Grades, Merchantable . 10 

Distinguishing Logs. 8 

Door Stock . 11 

Doors . 20 

Doors, Ship . 23 

Doors, Veneered . 21 

Dredger Spuds . 24 

Finish, Exterior . 10 






































244 THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Index—Continued 

Finish, Interior . 10 

Flag Poles. 23 

Foliage . 7 

Grain, Edge . 16 

Grain, Flat . 17 

Grain, Slash . 17 

Grain, Vertical . 10 

Grain, Vertical, Four Sides. 14 

Height of Trees. 8 

Inspection of Domestic and Foreign Cargoes... 107 

Kiln Drying Lumber . 34 

Kiln Drying Case Hardening, Cause and Rem¬ 
edy . 38 

Kiln Drying, Facts to Be Remembered. 37 

Kiln Drying Partly Seasoned Lumber. 36 

Kiln Drying Results, Cause of Poor . 37 

Kiln Drying, Space for Quick Drying. 36 

Kiln Drying Stickers, Size of. 36 

Knots. 106 

Lath . 4 2 

Lath, Bundles, Round Versus Square. 44 

Lath, Contents . 42 

Lath, Grade . 43 

Lath, Grade According to Export G List. 45 

Lath, Freight . 43 

Lath, Measurements . 42 

Lath, Piling . 4 4 

Lath, Remarks . 43 

Lath, Standard Size for Export. 42 

Lath, Weight . 42 

Name, Botanical . 7 

Name, Correct . 9 

Pickets, Rough . 40 

Pickets, Contents . 41 

Pickets, Discoloration . 41 

Pickets, Grade, Export G List. 40 

Pickets, Manufacture . 40 

Pickets, Measurements . 41 








































THE PRACTICAL, LUMBERMAN 245 


Index—Continued 

Pickets, Weight . 41 

Piles, Weight of, Fir . 110 

Poles, Flag . 240 

Range . 7 

Shrinkage . 11 

Spars for Atlantic Ship Yards . 240 

Spars for England . 240 

Spars, Large . 240 

Spuds, Dredger . 24 

Staves According to Export “G” List. 41 

Strength . 26 

Strength, Air Dried Timbers. 33 

Strength, Effect of Seasoning On. 28 

Strength, Pointers On. 30 

Strength, Red Fir. 28 

Strength, Results of Mechanical Tests On .... 29 

Strength Tables . 27 

Strength, Yellow Fir. 28 

Timbers, Largest Sawn. 24 

Trees, Diameter . 8 

Trees, Giant . 25 

Trees, Height . 8 

Veneered Doors . 21 

Warpage . 11 

Weight . 26 

Weight of Piles . 110 

Grand Fir. 

See White Fir. 170 

Noble Fir. 166 

Bark . 167 

Botanical Name. 166 

Color and Grain. 169 

Cones . 167 

Finish . 169 

Flooring . 169 

Foliage . 167 

Name, the Correct. 168 

Quality . 169 







































246 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Index—Continued 

Range . 167 

Weight . 170 

White Tir. 170 

Bark . 171 

Botanical Name. 170 

Description of the Wood. 171 

Output . 171 

Use for Pulpwood. 172 

Weight . 171 

HEMLOCK 

Western Hemlock . 155 

Bark . 156 

Bark, Value for Tannic Acid. 1C2 

Bevel Siding. 158 

Botanical Name. 155 

Boxes and Packing Cases. 159 

Cones . 156 

Description of the Wood. 157 

Finish, Interior . 158 

Flooring . 158 

Foliage . 156 

Grading . 160 

Kiln Drying. ICO 

Making Extract of Tannic Acid. 164 

Mining Timbers. 159 

Pulp Wood. 159 

Range . 157 

Results of Strength Tests . 160 

Samples to Foreign Buyers. 164 

Strength, Table of. 161 

Use for Light Construction . 158 

Weight . 159 

LARCH 

Western Larch. 164 

Bark and Foliage. 165 

Botanical Name. 164 

Description of the Wood. 165 






































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


247 


Index—Continued 

Range and Occurrence. 165 

Use and Durability... 1GG 

SPRUCE 

Western or Sitka Spruce. 152 

Aeroplanes, Spruce for . 155 

Botanical Name. 152 

Boxes for Food Products. 153 

How to Grind Knives for Dressing Spruce. 155 

Quality . 154 

Range . 153 

Secret of Surfacing. 154 

Use for Finish. 153 

Western and Eastern Spruce Compared. 152 

FINE 

Sugar Pine. 135 

Bark . 135 

Botanical Name. 135 

Cones. 136 

Description of the Wood. 136 

Distinguishing Characteristics . 135 

Foliage .. 136 

Longevity . 136 

Range . 136 

Use. 137 

Western White Pine. 139 

Botanical Name. 139 

Diameter and Height. 139 

The Wood and Its Use. 139 

White Pine for Export. 139 

Western Yellow Pine. 137 

Botanical Name. 137 

Description of the Wood. 133 

Diameter and Height. 138 

Range . 137 



































248 THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Index—Continued 

REDWOOD 

Big- Tree of California .'. 132 

Botanical name . 132 

Description of the Wood. 134 

Father of the Forest. 133 

Longevity . 134 

Range . 133 

Size .133 

California Redwood . 118 

Bark . 119 

Botanical Name. 11S 

Car Material. 123 

Color . 122 

Durability . 123 

Finish, Exterior. 122 

Finish, Interior . 122 

Fire Resisting Qualities . 124 

Forest Associates . 120 

Grades in Use by Redwood Manufacturers. 126 

Grain . 122 

Holding of Spikes in Ties. 124 

Logging . 120 

Occurrence. 118 

Painting and Polishing . 122 

Pattern Work . 123 

Quality . 123 

Range .*.. 118 

Reproduction . 119 

Size . 118 

Sap . 122 

Sawdust for Packing Grapes . 132 

Shingles, Official Grading Rules . 128 

Shingles, How They Are Packed. 129 

Tank Stock, Durability of . 125 

Teredo and Redwood . 124 

Ties . 124 

Weights, Lumber . 129 

Weights, Shingles . 133 









































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


249 


Index—Continued 

White Ant and Redwood. 124 

Yield . 119 

Contents of— 

* Cordwood .46,163 

Fathom of Lathwood . 202 

Laths . 42 

Loads . 201 

Metric Lengths . 194 

Pickets . 41 

Riga Last . 201 

Shingles (see Red Cedar Shingles) .45,200 

Standards . 200 

Staves . 41 

Tons . 202 

Customs Regulations . 228 

British Columbia Ports. 228 

United States Ports. 229 

Dry Kiln— 

Capacity, Increasing the . 39 

Construction of Kiln .e.. 38 

Doors . 39 

Fire, How to Act in Case of. 40 

Help, Intelligent . 39 

Information, General . 34 

Instruments, Recording . 39 

Duty on Dumber Entering— 

Australia . 101 

China . 102 

Japan . 103 

New Zealand . 102 

FIGURING 

Figuring . 113 

Addition, Bankers’ Method . 199 

Addition, Civil Service Method . 199 


































250 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Index—Continued 

Board Measure, How It Is Figured. 173 

Contents by Progressive Addition. 18S 

Freight Cars, to Figure Capacity of . 190 

Fractions . 178 

Addition . .178 

Division of Mixed Numbers. 180 

Multiplication . 179 

Multiplication of Mixed Numbers. 180 

Fractional Sizes . 178 

Inscribed Square. 58 

Logs, by Doyle Rule . 69 

Metrical Lengths . 194 

Metrical Orders . 195 

Multiplication, Rapid . 177 

Octagons .;. 49 

Orders, How to Increase or Decrease . 192 

Percentages . 193 

Short Rules . 181 

Specifications, Cargo . 190 

Specifications, Short Methods of Figuring. 191 

Standards, Composition of. 291 

Standards, Figuring . 202 

Standard Sizes and Multiples . 175 

Tapering Boards . 1S5 

Tapering Timbers. 187 

Timbers, Rectangular . 184 

Timbers, Square . 188 

Water, Difference of Immersion. 218 

Weight, Douglas Fir . 28 

Weight, Redwood . 123 

Weight, Water. 218 


Foreign Export Business. 97 

Inspection and Tallying. 107 

Inspection of Lumber Cargoes. 107 

System Used by Mill Tallymen and Inspectors. 193 
System Used by Shortage Clerk. 197 






































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


251 


Index—Continued 


Doading Steamers With Lumber and Duties of 

Super-Cargo... 203 


Air Pipes . 

Ballast Pumps . 

Ballast Regulating During Loading. 

Capacity according to draft . 

Capacity According to Displacement . 

Capacity, Carrying . 

Capacity, Errors of Coal. 

Capacity in Proportion to Net Tonnage. 

Cinder Stained Lumber. 

Coal, Cubical Measurement of. 

Coaling . 

Counting Pieces. 

Density of Water. 

Diagram of Cargo Stowage. 

Draft, Before and After Coaling. 

Draft, Taking It When Loadline Is Submerged 

Draft, Taking the. 

Experienced Lumberman as Super-Cargo. 

Immersion, Difference in Salt and Fresh Water 

Lining of Tanks. 

List, Ascertaining the Degrees of. 

Lists, Dangerous. 

Load Line, Diagram of. 

Load Line, Explanation of. 

Longshoremen, Complement of a Gang ... _ 

Marking Off Orders.. 

Marks, Shipping. 

Passing of Sailing Vessels. 

Pilot, the . 

Record of Cargo Stowage. 

Ship’s Plan . 

Short Stowage . 

Sounding Tubes. 

Stability, to Ascertain. 

Stanchions for Deckload. 

Stanchions, Removing. 

Steam, Getting Up. 


203 

207 
220 
216 

214 

215 

215 

216 
226 
215 
215 
225 
218 

225 
214 
218 

213 

203 
218 

208 
221 
220 
211 
210 

223 

226 

227 
2 )3 
222 
224 

204 
221 
209 
221 
222 

214 
222 







































252 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Index—Continued 

Suction Arrangement. 208 

Tanks . 204 

Tanks, Deep . 205 

Tanks, Double Bottom. 204 

Tanks, Peak, Use of. 205 

Tanks, Filling Ballast. 206 

Tanks, Filling Deep . 207 

Tanks, Filling Double Bottom . 206 

Tanks, Filling Peak . 207 

Tanks, the Time to Fill. 220 

The Tell-Tale Pipe. 210 

Water Ballast. 204 

Water, Measurement and Weight. 21 S 

Wedges . 223 

LOGS “DOUGLAS FIB” 

Description of Log Rules.. . 68 

Description of Doyle Rule. 60 

Description of Scribner Rule . 6S 

Description of Spaulding Rule. 70 

Scaling . 59 

Conk, the Blind . Cl 

Culling Logs. 60 

Defects in Logs.59, 63 

Gummy Butt, the. 62 

Old System, the. 61 

Pitch Rings . 62 

Pitch Rings, Double. 62 

Pointers for the Scaler. 63 

Scaling and Grading Rules of Columbia River 

Bureau . 79 

Spaulding Scale, 12 to 60 Inches Diameter. 71 

Stump rot. 61 

Scaling in British Columbia. 64 

Diameter and Length Method of Measuring. ... 65 

Old Rule. 64 

Rule, Basis of New. 65 

Rules for Grading. 66 





































THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 253 


Index—Continued 

Rule, the New. 65 

The Scaler. 66 

Terms Used by Pacific Coast Loggers. 53 

Tables— 

Showing Diameter of Log Necessary to Make 

a Square Timber. 57 

Spaulding Log Scale, 12 in. to 60 in. diameter. . 71 

Trees— 

Growth . 70 

Growth, Diameter . SO 

Growth, Height . 80 

Tree Borer. Si 

LOGS “REDWOOD” 

Logging . 120 

MINING LUMBER 

Breakage . 30 

Decay .83, SS 

Experiments . 91 

Factors Destructive to Timber . 88 

Grading Rules, Domestic “No. 5“ List. 94 

Grading Rules, Export “G” List . 94 

Information, General . 82 

Insect Infested Timber. 90 

Inspection for Cargo Shipment. 94 

Life of Treated Timber . 84 

Life of Untreated Timber . 84 

Lagging .. 86 

Peeling Timber . 91 

Replacement, Annual. 84 

Seasoning. 93 

Sets, Timbering. 86 

Supervision in Setting Timbers. 93 

Timbers, Permanent. S3 































254 


THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


Index—Continued 


Timbers, Temporary . *2 

Treatment to Retard Decay. 93 

Waste . 90 

Wear . 90 

Miscellaneous. 

Difference Between Hardwood and Softwood... 110 

Piles, to Resharpen Old. 100 

Trees Struck by Lightning. 109 

Trees That Weep . 109 

Whitewash Formula, U. S. Government. 13 

Pulp Wood. 94 

Burned Over Timber for Pulp Wood. 95 

Cord Measure. 46 

Hemlock Pulp Wood. 159 

How It Is Made. 94 

White Fir Pulp Wood. 172 


Sawing— 

Octagons . 4S 

Octagons, Table for Making . 51 

Octagons, Explanation of Table. 52 

Timbers, Correct Method of Sawing. 47 

Timbers. Table Showing Diameter of a Log to 

Make a Square Timber. 58 


Saws .. 103 

Hanging the Saw. 104 

Lining Saw With the Carriage. 103 

Sketch of Collar. 104 


Ties . 95 

Cross Ties Per Mile. 97 

How to Pile Ties. 90 

U. S. Government Requirements on Creosoted 

Ties . 95 






























THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN 


2 00 


Index—Continued 
SILOS 

Silage, Reasons for use of . 237 

Silo . 230 

Silo, Depth . 233 

Silo, Illustration Exterior View . 234 

Silo, Illustration Interior View . 231 

Silo, Reasons Why Farmers Should Have One. 235 
Silo, Reasons Why Silos Have Become Numer¬ 
ous . 232 

Silo, Surface, Inside . 233 

Staves, Grade . 235 

Staves, Length .233 

Staves, Sap . 235 

Staves, Size . 233 

Wood Block Pavement . Ill 

Angle of Courses. 116 

Bridge Floors. 113 

Compared to Other Paving Material. Ill 

Easy to Repair. 112 

Grade . 115 

Grain, How It Is Laid. 115 

Finishing the Pavement. . 116 

Foundation Required . 116 

Ideal Pavement for Autos. 112 

Kinds of Wood Used. 117 

Sanitary Qualities. 112 

Seasoning . 115 

Size . 115 

Wearing Qualities. 112 

What the “American Lumberman” Says. 117 































Memorandum 







































































































































































































































